Proposed WMA Name an Oxymoron

Having been at the proposed wma acquisition along the Niobrara River south of Nenzel, it is a very familiar place where more than twenty bird surveys have been done during the past decade. It was exciting to hear of its potential acquisition, an effort which can only be appreciated and strongly supported.

There is however, one point of strong disagreement, and that is the proposed name: Chat Canyon WMA.

The name was selected because "there is an unnamed canyon that comes into the valley on the property on the north side," according to a Nebraska Game and Parks Commission staff member, in response to my email inquiry.

Including chat in the name is appropriate because the species occurs there and the site was the locale for chat research.

It is the selection of canyon which is misleading and an oxymoron. Aerial photos and topographic maps indicate the canyon, but only a short section of its southern extent is on the tract. There is much more valley than canyon included among the property parcels.

Also, canyon refers to a land feature where chats would not be expected. Chats prefer the valley, almost to the exclusion of any upland such as the canyon, because these birds prefer deciduous vegetation to coniferous on the upland.

The Niobrara River valley is the most important chat habitat and to the primary extent of the area.

A more suitable name would be Chat Valley WMA. This alternative is preferential as it better reflects those features associated with the Yellow-breasted Chat.

The following elevation map indicates the approximate extent of the canyon included within the area proposed for acquisition. It measures about 15-1600 linear feet (indicated by the yellowish line), while the entire canyon is about 6600 feet in length. So, only about 25% of the canyon extent is within the parcel being considered.

This is another reason using canyon as a named features indicates a land feature which is only partially within the confines of the proposed wma, and more associated with the neighbor's property, perhaps leading people to think the canyon is publicly accessible.

Variable Names for Landmarks Along Historic Middle Niobrara Valley

In the decades before maps with names for the places of the Niobrara valley were readily available, the native residents, explorers, and land surveyors designated their own attribution upon places they visited. This all started to change in the mid-1850s when government-sponsored expeditions determined features of the land and prepared maps indicating the geography for United States officials. Additional efforts contributed further insight and another set of names to some of the prominent features along the running water. Then, in the 1870s, land office surveyors toiled to define legal boundaries as the unfettered territory became parcels of government land, with names set and which would last evermore.

During the mid-1850s into the 1870s, a variety of different names were used to depict landmarks, especially the tributary creeks of the river. By evaluating the original written sources - as there are no books or online sources to conveniently reference - and considering their routes or maps in comparison with modern geography, and closely evaluating similarities for the features mentioned, it is readily possible to determine places mentioned by the few essential authors from so many years ago.

In the first years of written history, there were different names given for the different creeks and other water-related places along the middle portion of the ever-flowing Niobrara River. It is a wondrous consideration of people during the times, and how they projected their influence on a land indifferent to labels and miniscule influences on their realm, though invasive forces imposed a stricture of names and designations essential to the progression of time and people across the land of the region.

Military Expeditions in the 1850s

Lieutenant Gouverneur Kemble Warren, of the U.S. Army topographic engineers, received the assignment to determine the optimal route for a military road from Sioux City on the Missouri River, to the South Pass across the Rocky Mountains. This effort started in 1855, and would finish early in the winter of 1857.

The first presence on the river of interest was in August 1855, with the Sioux expedition under the command of Bvt. Brig. General William Selby Harney. During a portion of the journey, the big caravan went southward from Fort Pierre, past the marshlands and creeks of the eastern sandhills on their way to the Platte River and Fort Kearny, then further west to Blue Water Creek and its day of infamy, then to Fort Laramie.

Lt. Warren made daily entries in his journal, which convey the setting as they reached a prominent river on the northern fringe of the "Great Sand Hills" on August 15th.

On the map, it was designated according to the Dacota Indians, as "Mini Tonka or Big Water." Further to the east, the caption was "Niobrarah or L'Eau qui court or Rapid River." Thus, there were five names attributed in 1855, derived from nomenclature of the Indians, French trappers (who formerly had a post at the Snake River confluence), and as interpreted by the first explorers. Notably, none match its modern name.

Lt. Warren's journal has detail of the river crossing vicinity. Once on the south side, the military caravan continued seven miles and encamped on the "Wah-zee hanst kee ya," or "the place where the pine runs far out." This was spelled Wazi-han-skiya on the map. This stream is interpreted as being Long Pine Creek, a name which is still familiar.

"The prevailing wood on the Running Water and the ravines is yellow pine, but the trees are not very good." Warren wrote. "Cotton wood, scrubby oak, small ash and other trees to be found."

"Running Water is clear, .... All the ravines contain springs of clear water. The bottom of the river is hard and when the river is low can be easily forded. We found some Indian had been out a few days before as going towards the north. Our guide said they were Pankas" [Poncas].

The only other waterway of note depicted on the map showing the route of the Sioux Expedition, is the "Wamdashka Wakpi," or Snake River, with a notation of falls on its lower reach, near its confluence with the larger running water river.

Eastward Along the Niobrara Valley

Further experiences associated with the valley of the running water occurred in 1857. The Warren Expedition had finished their arduous journey along the Loup Fork and western sandhills, and after a sojourn at Fort Laramie, continued traveling, going eastward to get to Fort Randall.

The expeditionary party had been split. One group included Lt. Warren and others, including Ferdinand V. Hayden going to investigate the Black Hills and other places in southern Dacotah. Another bunch of men on the government payroll went to explore the Niobrara River valley.

The best account for the latter is given in the words expressed in the journal of topographer J. Hudson Snowden, a prominent man of the caravan, which traversed the river valley, noting its features and mentioning significant daily events.

In reaching the area of interest on September 25th, the first river tributary of interest was denoted on the map of the portion of the route as "Mini-Nape-ho, Ini-sni-he — Stinking Hand Creek" with an additional notation of "Antelope Creek." Some small teal were noted in water holes along the tributary on the 26th. The caravan camped here at its confluence with the Niobrarah, until their departure on the 27th.

"We came to a small creek with clear running water, four feet wide, very little bottom in which the grass was pretty good," Snowden wrote. "The bluffs along the L'eau qui court are similar to those mentioned yesterday and wood in the valley increased in quantity as we descend. Some pine in ravines."

A dramatic clue to the name for the creek was in the topographer's journal: "We saw to day a great many antelope. Two were killed. Before reaching camp one of the soldiers having killed an antelope one of the herders went to assist him in bringing it into camp. His mule, getting restless at the train having ... broke away from him and went back on the road which we came, the man followed him until dark. He returned being unable to catch him."

The caravan remained stationary the next day so the mule could be found, and it was located about ten miles to the west, near an Indian camp. Everything was found except a Colt pistol, which the Indians said was not in the holster when they found the mule. Snowden and Dr. Samuel Moffitt explored the lower portion of the creek, and noted that "the valley of the creek was filled with antelope."

This name remains to this day.

During the next day's travel the caravan went past a running stream which was not named. This is now known as Hay Creek.

The next tributary along the south side of the river, provided a site suitable for a stay from 28-30 September.

It was identified as "Maca sea Wakpa" or "White Earth Creek" in the written words of Snowden's daily diary. His maps, include the names of "Shiftola Wakpala (Bearroot Creek)?" and "Clay Creek." On the 28th, "large flocks of cranes passed over our camp this evening, traveling south."

Departure was at 8 o'clock on the morning of the 30th and the caravan went only three miles before their reached the creek of many names. The night's camp was about a half-mile west of the confluence of this creek at the L'eau qui court, on "a little bottom shut in by hills with good grass and plenty of wood for fuel."

This was to be a camp until October 13th. The Snowden group was awaiting the arrival of the Warren party that was in the Black Hills and southern Dacotah, so there was no great urgency to continue their travels down the river.

The creek, now known as Leander Creek, was six or seven feet wide, with clear running water, that was 18 inches to two feet in depth. The ravines were filled with small pine trees. Also along the L'eau qui court, there were "immense quantities of plum bushes laden with fruit now ripe, and grapes in profusion," Snowden indicated in his journal entry on October 1st. "Many signs of elk in the vicinity and several were seen."

Two mules were gone on October 2nd, so a search ensued. The travel hiatus continuing on the 4th, which slowed any forward progress.

On the 6th, Snowden and Dr. Moffitt went southward to explore southward, thinking they might find the Snake River. They were not successful, but noted on their return ride that they followed the "bottom valley which is narrow and low filled with springs and in many places boggy, a species of cane some fifteen feet high and very thick grow in places. While red willow grow in great profusion on the wet places while the rose and plum and cherry bushes chose higher ground." One of the horses sank in one of the bogs and was extricated, with difficulty.

The next notation, a few days' later, and pertinent to a particular landmark, though not geographic in character, is quite dramatic, and a highlight of the region's history.

For October 11th, 1857, Snowden wrote these words, vividly illustrating the interaction between the government force and the Indian residents: "About 2 p.m. twenty-two Brule Indians crossed the river and charged into the camp with their bows strung and arrows in their hands. They said, they left Snake River this morning, where they left their village and chief 'White Black Bird' who was on his death bed, and who sent his paper, given him by Gen. Harney, by one of those present, who was leading the party. They said one of their young men who was out hunting had seen us on our road and supposing we were French traders they were going to take all our property away from us. They were very indignant at our going through their country, and wanted us to pay for the privilege of passing. The said we were eating all their plums and wild fruit and burning their wood. That our horses were eating and destroying all the grass along the river. That we were killing and scaring away all the game that they met - the buffalo and antelope flying from our approach 100 miles before they reached us. That Gen. Harney has assured them no white men would come into their country without a license from him, and had told them to stop and rob any one who came into their dominion with such a passport. We had some difficulty to make them leave camp at dark, and had to threaten to fire on them before they would leave. They camped near us."

On the 12th, "The Indians left early this morning," Snowden wrote, " all of them separating, going in different directions, saying they were going to join Little Thunder when their village moves over from Snake River." Chief Little Thunder was a survivor of the Battle of Blue Water Creek, two years previous.

On the 13th, the caravan crossed the White Earth Creek, having to double the wagon teams and unload some of the wagons to ascend the steep hill.

The caravan then remained in a camp, until the Lt. Warren party arrived on the 15th, with celebration and additional time spent at the place to deal with matters. Provisions were divided and some men wanting to return to Fort Laramie were discharged. The stay continued the next day, especially since it started snowing in the evening, and continued the next day. On the morning of the 18th, there were 4 inches of snow on the ground.

Upon the departure on the 19th, Snowden used the name "Little Rapid River" as the name for what is shown as Reunion Creek on the expedition map for the mid-1850s.

This is the modern-day Bear Creek.

Their route continued along the north side of the river valley, distant enough to avoid the ravines, on the 20th making a "considerable detour to head some ravines which run out a long distance into the prairies passing over low rolling ground." Pine and cedar grew on the bluffs.

The Snake River was mentioned, even though it was not along the direct route of the caravan, bit P.M. Engel, meteorologist went exploring to this notable river, and noted some of its features.

The journey continued, and on October 23rd, the next creek was noted. The map shows it was called the "Mini Chadusa" which is now spelled Minnnechaduza and is the second prominent river in the vicinity of where the settlement of Valentine was established more than two decades later.

On the next day, after leaving the camp along the L'eau qui court, the day's entry by Snowden mentioned the availability of water from springs. On the map for this reach of the river, there is the only indication of a spring for the entire reach of the Niobrara traversed. A spring is indicated, which correlates with Tyler Falls, at the modern day Fort Niobrara NWR.

As the caravan's route subsequently went eastward along the uplands north of the river, there is little information given on features along the Niobrarah valley. Dr. Hayden did travel along the river on the 25th, and Snowden mentioned: "These ravines are filled with scrub oak, ash a few elm, plum and cherry bushes in the beds, while their sides are covered with pine."

Moving to the north, the military force, eventually crossed the Turtle Hill River, beyond the Niobrara valley, thus ending their visitation and any notes about this riverine place.

Sawyer Expeditions of 1865-66

Colonel James A. Sawyer was the commander of an expedition allocated $50,000 to establish a road from Niobrara, Nebraska to the Montana gold fields. The first journey was in the summer of 1865, along a route going east-to-west on the south side of the Niobrarah.

The first note of pertinence in Sawyer's account was on June 23, 1865: "came to Pine creek upon which we camped at 4:00 P.M. This creek has much pine and cedar timber of a second rate quality growing on its banks. Grass, wood and water plenty and good - the weather was cool in the morning but sultry in the middle of the day - Several mules in the escort train gave out during the day."

This is probably Long Pine Creek.

On the "28th. Severe thunder shower last night and some rain this morning. The first two miles of our days travel today were quite rough and broken but at the end of that distance we entered the valley of Bear creek which, running from the west, enabled us to travel up to it for about 9 miles when we made a ford and crossed over and camped on the north side at 2:00 P.M. - The creek valley is about 3/4 of a mile wide level and covered with a most luxuriant growth of grass. - It seemed to be the finest place for farming that we had seen, though for timber one would have to go to the river, distant about 5 miles. The stream is very sluggish, being backed up by a succession of beaver dams. No wood at this camp but plenty of 'buffalo chips'."

The next day, ... "we passed a very fine stream about 6 feet wide, running very swiftly over a rocky bed over which a ford was made without difficulty - below the ford the ledges break off very fast, making a canyon through which the stream races - the sides were composed of lime and sand stone rock embedded in which Dr. Tingley discovered the fossil remains of two huge tortoises, quite perfect and entire. The transverse diameter of each could not have been less than 3 feet."

Early July was torrid. The high mark of the daily temperature exceeded 100o, for several days. A temperature of 103o was noted on July 2nd - "two oxen died from the heat during the day and a soldier was rendered insensible through sunstroke." On the 3rd, it was 100o at 1:00 p.m., according to Sawyer's journal, with 104o to day's high on Independence day.

Further along, Sawyer's journal for August 8th, mentioned a tributary which conforms well with the modern-era Medicine Creek: "arrived at a fine spring stream over which we made a ford and camped on the west side in a very fine site - plenty of grass at camp, and wood on the river half a mile below camp - the surface of the country here very fine to travel over - the river at this point flows in a single channel over a rocky bed and through a canyon 80 to 100 feet in depth though in some places the ground slopes gradually from the plateau to the river bed, alternating on either side - very recent Indian signs were seen and one of the scouts saw where an antelope had been killed by them on yesterday."

In subsequent days, mention was made of Antelope Creek and Rush Creek, well known in Sheridan County today.

There were few additional notes pertinent to this discourse, but in 1866, more facts of interest were presented in the account of the journey to the gold fields of the mountain west..

The account for the middle Niobrara River, comes into focus on June 18th, when Sawyer's caravan nooned at Pine Creek. About 5.4 miles further along, was Harlan Springs, where the group "corralled."

This particular locality cannot be determined with accuracy, but it was certainly a spring-branch canyon on the southern side of the valley.

Further west - on June 19th - was a tributary dubbed Lone Pine Creek. "This beautiful stream is 25 feet wide, cool, clear and rapid with gravel bed - timber typically burr oak and pine," is possibly Plum Creek, based on the distance from Long Pine Creek.

On the 20th, they reached "Bear Creek" after traversing about 14 miles. This is likely Fairfield Creek, based on the distance from the previous landmark, and as it flows straight from the west as mentioned in the travel narrative.

The caravan once again nooned on another creek on June 21st. The name given in the historic account was "Fossil Creek," and was 13 miles west of Bear Creek. This is likely Schlagel Creek, the next prominent creek westward.

Camp on the night of the 21st was further upriver. Sawyer and the many others "corralled at the mouth of Bogus Snake creek on the Niobrara river - the scenery at this camp was very fine, the bluffs along the river rivaling in grandeur the Palisades of the Hudson..." The details of the narrative point to their being at Gordon Creek, since after departure from camp, the next tributary mentioned was the Snake River, well-known to explorers, and mentioned further: "The river here was about 100 feet wide and about 18 inches deep with a rock bottom. The scenery above the crossing is grand, the river descending over numerous falls of from 6 to 25 feet, the nearly perpendicular walls of the canyon being composed of lime, sand stone and marl, among which are many fossil remains. Pine in abundance grows along this stream."

The people on the move continued on their way, and about 25 miles further west, was another prominent flow. It was called Deep Creek, where it was hot, the "mercury at noon 95 degrees in the shade." Details convey that this was most likely Medicine Creek.

There are few additional details of the flowing waters along the Niobrarah, except for a reference to a spring branch on June 27th. This could have been one of the flows from the canyons along the north side of the river, between Medicine Creek and Rush Creek, which was reached on the 28th.

Diary of Dr. Maghee

Dr. Thomas G. Maghee was the physician hired to accompany the Yale University expedition of 1873, in pursuit of ancient bones desired by Othniel Charles Marsh, a professor of the college.

They departed from Fort McPherson in the Platte Valley and reached the Niobrara in latter June, about a half mile below Antelope Creek. One of the notable places mentioned in the Doctor's terse account was a notable boiling spring: "During the day we found and named Fossil Spring," his journal noted. "It springs out of solid rock in a high bluff North bank of river about 19 miles below mouth of Antelope Creek."

This is likely Leander Creek, and it is about this distance eastward from Antelope Creek.

On the 4th of July, his journal with its distinctive misspellings, indicates: "Well when I remember last 4th and realize what my present situation is I exclaim "What hath God Wrought" Believing as I do that there is no luck but pluck and good management I ascribe to the Infinite the praise realizing that only the energy with which he endowed me has enabled me to achieve my present success. We communicate with the 2nd Cavelry tomorrow having marched nearly twelve miles today and camped in the forks of the rapid creek & Niobrara. We are 2700 ft. above the level of the sea at Antelope creek we were 4200. This is a magnifficent Camp and the Rapid Creek is a swift clear stream about ten ft. wide 1 ft. deep. Wooded at its mouth. There is about 5 miles by three between the two rivers flat and pretty over the N. there is a beautiful grove, plenty of timber a nice place for a ranch."

This was likely the Minnechaduza River. This was it for the Niobrara notes by this expedition, as the party then went southward to return to the Platte River.

Land-Office Surveys of the 1870s

The most-detailed renditions of the land were made by the government surveyors, marking lines for the principal meridian lines, townships and individual sections to mark parcels, which would eventually become property to be claimed by homesteaders. The hired men of the land-office were required to denote primary features and accurately mark and map the territory. Their notes indicate the features present during the dates of their work, documented by the myriad of land office surveys. A detailed map and description was prepared for every township.

It was an ongoing progression from south to the north, and east to west.

There is little to note about the origins of place name, as the attributes given on the maps match the modern names. This includes Fairfield Creek, Schlagel Creek and Gordon Creek. Snake Creek was the name given for the Snake River. Going westward along the river, the place names noted conform with the names still used in modern times. Medicine Creek was noted as a spring branch.

Leander Creek was identified as a spring-branch creek, based on surveys in the latter 1870s. Antelope Creek kept its moniker, as indicated on the map of the township, and as a name which is still the proper attribution more than 125 years later.

Considering Landmark History

During the first years of history along the Niobrara River, the designated names were based on the perspective of the person writing about them. The Brule Indians did not write history, so their names were known only from what they told trappers and military men intruding into the territory. As the historic period progressed, the place names garnered some consistency as people used a common name again and again to refer to some site, in order to indicate it in a manner that would be readily known.

Indian names with their distinct spelling, distinctive pronunciation and probably because of unwanted memories, fell out of favor. Derivative names held sway, in some cases as the era of settlement descended. Pioneer stockmen with their hired hands used names that eventually came to be the standard of nomenclature for the various localities along the river. Despite the obvious gaps in the maps from the Land Office surveys, names continued in common use and made their way onto maps used to guide settlers to the western frontier.

Despite the near loss of the original names, their distinctive attributions are a profound aspect of the native culture, and should never be forgotten when considering the history of the region.

Results of Tern and Plover Survey of Lower Niobrara River

A summer survey of Least Terns and Piping Plovers along the lower Niobrara River noted both species occurred commonly at a number of locations.

The count done on June 17, 2009 via airboat counted 127 terns (22 nests) at eighteen different locations, and 80 plover (28 nests) at ten locations within the 40-mile stretch of the river from Highway 137 to the Spencer Dam.

A followup survey was done on July 30th. Probable nesting success was noted during the second survey as a number of chicks or fledglings were observed.

The greater numbers noted, according to information provided by the Nebraska Public Power District, were:

Terns	Nests	Plovers	Nests	July Survey Notes
26	4	17	4	- 25 adult Least Terns, with 8 fledglings, 8 nests, and 4 chicks 12 days old
21	5	10	1	- 4 adult Least Tern with 4 fledglings - 1 Piping Plover
20	6	16	8	colony gone
18	5	10	5	- 2 adult Least Tern with 2 fledglings - 2 Piping Plover adults
10	1	4	0	colony gone
10	0	17	8	sandbar gone

During the late-July survey, at a site where there had been 3 adult terns and two adult plover in June, there were 8 Least Tern adults, with two fledglings and two nests, as well as three adult Piping Plover and one nest.

There was no apparent reason for the two colonies to be gone, according to summary report of the survey results.

Surveys in this area have only been done the past five years on a consistent basis, according to Jim Jenniges, an environmental specialist with NPPD. "This year’s June count of adults was very close to average, nests were down a little but not significant."

The survey is done each season as part of the statewide census to count adult birds in June and is not intended to document nesting.

Mark Peyton with the Central Nebraska Public Power and Irrigation District, and Mark Czaplewski with the Central Platte Natural Resource District also helped to conduct the surveys.

Tern and Plover Nesting Failed in 2009 on Niobrara River Section

The 2009 breeding season was a failure for Least Terns and Piping Plovers along a portion of the Niobrara River.

Based on three surveys done by seasonal biological technicians of the National Park Service office in Valentine, there were no young raised on the lower section of the Niobrara National Scenic River, according to a report just released by the agency.

The section between the Norden Bridge and the Highway 137 Bridge had been surveyed in six to 12 mile segments between June 16th and July 21st, by agency staff floating in kayaks.

On the first survey, five terns and nesting plovers were noted along the river only between the Highway 183 and Highway 7 bridges:

Table 1: 1st Census (6/16-6/25)
River Segment	Date	Mean Flow (cfs)	Terns/Nests/Eggs	Plovers/Nests/Eggs	Unknown Empty Nest
Norden to Meadville	6/25	885	0/0/0	0/0/0	0
Meadville to Hwy 183	6/18	1010	0/0/0	0/0/0	0
Hwy 183 to Hwy 7	6/16	1200	5/0/0	4/4/14	2
Hwy 7 to Carns	6/17	1120	0/0/0	0/0/0	0
Carns to Hwy 137	6/19	926	0/0/0	2/0/0	0

An increased number of these two species were noted on the second survey in latter June and early July:

Table 2: 2nd Census (6/29-7/7)
River Segment	Date	Mean Flow (cfs)	Terns/Nests/Eggs	Plovers/Nests/Eggs	Unknown Empty Nest
Norden to Meadville	7/7	841	0/0/0	0/0/0	0
Meadville to Hwy 183	7/6	922	10/0/0	8/0/0	4
Hwy 183 to Hwy 7	6/29	848	9/4/10	6/7/22	9
Hwy 7 to Carns	6/30	823	0/0/0	0/0/0	0
Carns to Hwy 137	7/2	754	4/0/0	0/0/0	0

A third survey on July 21 to the river segment where birds had been nesting, did not find any terns or plovers.

The sandbar where the birds had been nesting "appeared considerably altered from the previous visit at the end of June," the report said. "There had been a severe thunderstorm on July 13th, with precipitation exceeding two inches; this may have at least partly accounted for the absence of bird signs."

There was also a higher water flow in the river this season, in comparison to last year.

"The river flows in 2009 were considerably higher than in 2008 (a range of 754-922 cfs versus 580-707 cfs for the second census each year)," according to the report.

Overall, the numbers found increased this season in comparison to 2007 and 2008, the survey results indicate.

Results of Adult Census
	Adult Interior Least Terns	Adult Piping Plovers
2007	4	6
2008	6 (0, 6)	1 (0, 1)
2009	28 (5, 23)	20 (6, 14)

No young of either species had been raised in 2008, according to a NPS report issued last year. Three Piping Plover were hatched in 2007, according to Pamela Sprenkle, the resource management specialist for the NNSR.

Available results indicate a wide-range of known breeding success along this section of the Niobrara River in recent years:

2009-- 0 PP - 0 ILT

2008-- 0 PP - 0 ILT

2007-- 3 PP - 0 ILT

2006-- 0 PP - ? ILT

2005-- 10 PP - 4 ILT

2004-- 7 PP - 4 ILT

2003-- 11 PP - 4 or 5 ILT

2002-- 9 PP - 1 ILT

"No full-time resource manager was employed by the park beginning in the spring of 2007," Sprenkle said, "so discussions were held with resource management staff at the Missouri National Recreational River to determine the best way to handle the summer monitoring. Both because of the reduced personnel available and because of the low numbers of hatchlings encountered in the previous year, it was decided that an adult census would be a reasonable substitute: '...this would allow for population comparisons to previous years and when there is a significant increase in bird numbers, then maybe incorporate the nest/productivity checks.'"

"We (including the folks at the Missouri National Recreational River) decided to continue emphasizing the census over systematic followup visits to the sandbars," she added. "I am re-examining the protocols in conjunction with the development of a long-term resource stewardship strategy."

These surveys are conducted by NPS personnel in conjunction with the agency's management of the Niobrara National Scenic River. Park personnel monitor this 40 mile section each year.

Additional species noted during the surveys were: American Bittern, American Goldfinch, American White Pelican, Bald Eagle, Bank Swallow, Barn Swallow, Belted Kingfisher, Black-capped Chickadee, Bullock's Oriole, Canada Goose (including goslings), Chipping Sparrow, Common Grackle, Common Nighthawk, Common Yellowthroat, Eastern Kingbird, Eastern Phoebe, Eastern Wood-Pewee, Great Blue Heron, Green Heron, House Wren, Indigo Bunting, Killdeer, Mallard, Mourning Dove, Pied-billed Grebe, Red-tailed Hawk, Red-winged Blackbird, Spotted Sandpiper, Turkey Vulture and Yellow Warbler.

Etiology of Naming the Niobrara River

One of the most important regions of avian biogeography of the Great Plains is the Niobrara River. Historic studies have discovered and revealed bird hybridizations and range extensions for certain species along the valley of its running water.

Another interesting aspect of the effervescent river are the origins of its name, so indicative of its natural character.

When the Lewis and Clark expedition passed the mouth of the river, a journal entry in 1804 state: "the Rapid River, or, as it is called by the French, la Rivere qui Court. This river empties into the Missouri in a course S.W. by W. and is 152 yards wide and four feet deep at the confluence." This was translated into the "the river which runs," based on a translation of the French derived some other original source, perhaps from a local Indian tribe or based on the characteristics of the river itself. A editorial footnote for the name states that the name has been "corrupted into Quicoure, Quicurre, Quicure, Quecure, sometimes 'Quicum' by misprint."

The map for this section of the great journey, shows the river with the name "Quicourre."

The name as it is currently presented appears to be a derivation based on the language of the Omaha or at the time two centuries ago, the "Omawhaw" Indians. These native people had a territory along the Missouri River, but knew of the predominant river to their west.

In an account about these people in 1820, the journals from the U.S. government expedition led by Stephen M. Long refer to this river. Decisions were being made in the spring on which route to follow in their western explorations beyond the Engineer Cantonment, and the valley of this river was being considered.

"If it be decided to depart immediately, the subject to be taken into view will be the direction, extent, and object of our route; whether it would be proper to ascent the Running-Water creek, (Ne-bra-ra, or Spreading water), or the Platte, Ne-bres-kuh, or Flat water)," ...

An later entry, referred to same river using the name "Quicourre."

These are some of the oldest known references to the river, with the most similar spelling to the currently used Niobrara name, as it was designated on the 1823 map of the region explored during the expedition.

More than three decades later, another government expedition of 1855-1857 referred to the river as the Niobrara:

"The Niobrara being a stream heretofore unknown, and one in which the people of Nebraska feel much interest, I shall describe it in detail," were the first words from the lengthy and descriptive paragraph. Several of the tributary waterways were discussed using their names based on their tribal designations.

In 1866, a missionary on a route from Fort Randall, crossed the Missouri River and came to an agency associated with the Ponca Tribe. "When the sun was low we crossed the Niobrara, or Running Water, as it is called here. The name is Ponca, and properly means Swift Water, it is said. It is broad and shallow and swift, with moving sands in the bottom, - an ugly stream to cross," according to the letter written by Mr. Riggs.

By this era, the name Niobrara River was firmly in place and would continue to be the recognized and proper name for the waterway.

Further information on the origins of the name would subsequently get published, especially in a revealing account about the history of place-names used in the state of Nebraska.

"The name is an approximation of the Omaha-Ponca designation of Ni obthatha ke. This name was given in reference to its characteristic spreading during freshets over its flood plain. Ni means 'water,' and obthatha or ubthatha denotes, 'spreading'; the article ke refers to something in a horizontal position, and in connection with the name of a stream it carries the connotation of a stream flowing through a plain. The meaning thus would be 'water spreading and flowing through a plain,' 'Spreading Water River,' or briefly, 'Spreading River,' 'Wide River,' names descriptive of a condition that holds true in the lower course of the stream.

For the Dakota, the river was called "Mini tanka Wakpa. The word mini is their word for 'water,'; tanka is the equivalent of 'big,' 'great,' 'grand,' and in connection with a stream it embodies the idea of 'a wide stream'; wakpa is their word for 'river.' It has been translated as 'Big River' or "Grand River' and 'Big Water.' For the contemporary Dakota tribe, the Niobrara is called the "Mniblaska, meaning 'Flat Water' because it is a wide shallow stream."

The Pawnee name, according to this place name history, was Kits'kakis, hence the name would be swift or "Rapid River." This tribe, resided along the lower Loup, or Wolf River, along the eastern Platte River, and actually would probably have occurred along the rapid river to a very limited extent.

For the Cheyenne, the name was "Hisse yovi yoe," the "sudden, or unexpected river," or "surprise river" based on tribal members unexpectedly coming across the river during historic times, according to the place name history denoted by George Bird Grinnell. There was no waterway apparent, yet it suddenly occurred. This would have been in the western portion of the river's valley.

The spreading waters of the Niobrara River would most likely refer to the dynamic shift in the character of the channel. This river is one of many faces as it enter the state of Nebraska at its western boundary, and flows eastward.

For the western Lakota and others of this historic era, the river in its western extent was a subtle channel hidden in its valley. There was little to indicate its presence until being closely approached.

Botanist Joseph N. Nicollet went past the river in 1823, and called it "Eau qui court", as shown on the subsequent map "Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi River" issued in 1843. Nicollet was perhaps the first cartographer for the newly created Topographical Engineers. This is an interesting map for the number of Indian names shown for the different waterways.

The name "Ni-obrarah" was, however, the prominent name used, probably because this name had become the prominent moniker by this time in history.

A Dynamic river

With an increasing flow, the river etched across the land an incised valley, where the waters ran in a constricted channel beneath bluffs of sandstone created by the pervasive cuts of flowing springs or tributaries caused by the flow of groundwater established in the grassland dunes of the sandhills.

As the river drops along eastward, its channel features change. In the modern era, this it known to occur in the lower third of the river valley, but historically there were no predominant landmarks such as geographic longitude, county boundaries or settlements to use as reference points.

It would have still, nonetheless, been obvious that the river spread across the floor of its valley as it extended further eastward. The west had its relatively narrow and deeper channel where the constricted and rapid flow of the waters. Eastward of 100^o latitude, the broader valley allowed the channel to have a greater width with a shallower depth. This would be a perfect indication of a "spreading water river," a change because of geomorphology, rather than a name derived due to any high flow from rare seasonal "freshets" where water would spread across a constricted floodplain.

Whatever the origin, the river as it was known was certainly known to the tribes of the region. The details are all history, and are an interesting subject for any aficionado of one of the most unique rivers of the northern plains.

Dismal Years for Least Tern and Piping Plover Along the Middle Niobrara River

Portion of a sandbar used by Least Terns and Piping Plovers on the Niobrara National Scenic River. All images courtesy of the National Park Service office, Valentine.

By James Ed. Ducey. This article contains biological opinions of the author.

The number of Least Tern and Piping Plover present this season along the scenic river stretch of the Niobrara River was the lowest number recorded in the past twenty years.

Only four tern and six plover were noted during June and July surveys, according to a report from the National Park Service office in Valentine.

Heavy rains and subsequent higher water flows along the river may have washed away any nesting attempts. Weather related events also decimated river colonies last season.

The endangered Least Tern and threatened Piping Plover occupy variable sized, shifting sandbars each breeding season to scrape a small depression of a nest , then lay eggs and raise some young as they have for centuries.

The Niobrara valley is a challenging environment. Weather and rampaging water in a valley of different overall widths can result in flood flows that will wash away any nests, eggs or young on the sandbars elevated just inches above the river's usually languid surface. High water from heavy rains inundate the channel. Flood flows also shift river sediments that can modify and create suitable sandy bars habitat, with but a bit of vegetative growth.

Roaming predators and unconfined livestock from adjacent pastures can be a negative influence on colony sites for terns and the little brown plovers.

The species' recorded history for the Niobrara River extends back more than 100 years. Both species are first known from bird field notes from the Niobrara during the 1902 breeding season. Along the river south of Springview (now on Highway 183) were four Piping Plover, two of which were collected by scientists. A nest was found on June 21st; said nest with three known eggs then empty on June 25th. These plover "were noted commonly throughout the trip," down the river, said the bird journal of by professor Myron H. Swenk, along on an expedition from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

"The Least Tern was not observed until on August 4, when a few miles west of Badger we met with a flock of eight or nine flying about over the shallows. One male specimen was secured. From this point on to Niobrara it was very common, being noted every day, and every large bar was certain to have several of the little fellows hovering about, uttering their harsh, squeaky notes as they plunged into the shallows or chased each other about in the air. On one occasion one was seen flying straight towards a large bar with food in its mouth. Although lack of time prevented any stopping to search for nests, I have little doubt but that it breeds commonly on the large bars in that locality," the narrative said.

The active Badger postoffice was once near Big Sandy Creek, at the river in northwest Holt county.

Bird Surveys

Aerial views provided the results for the first surveys - starting in 1977 - and counting from Mariaville to Spencer Dam, and further east along the river course. These were continued by the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission for many years. Since 2002, numerous riverine surveys have been conducted by biological technicians of the National Park Service, along the Niobrara National Scenic River. These are the detail surveys now conducted.

Results of surveys for Least Tern and Piping Plover on Niobrara National Scenic River segments. Information courtesy of the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, and National Park Service.
Date - Survey Segment	Least Tern	Piping Plover
1982, July 14 - Highway 183 to Meadville	25 adults	8 adults
1983 - Highway 183 to Meadville	7 adults on 13 July; 4 on 19 July; and 2 on 26 July	2 adults on 13 July; 5 on 19 July
1984, 22 June - Mariaville to Highway 183	10 adults	6 adults
1985 - Mariaville to Highway 183	16 adults and six nests on 4 June; 3 adults on 23 July	10 adults and 5 nests on 4 June; 20 adults on 23 July
1987, 9 June - Mariaville to Highway 183	10 adults and 3 nests	8 adults and 2 nests
1996 - 5 June - Highway 183 to Meadville - 18 and 20 June - Mariaville to Hwy 183	- 2 adults - 3 nests on 18 June and 2 adults on 20th	- 4 adults - 2 nests with eggs on 18 June and 1 adult
2001, 5 June - Highway 183 to Meadville - Mariaville to Highway 183	- 2 adults - 13 adults at four sites	- 4 adults - 6 adults at two sites and a nest with eggs
2002 - Highway 183 to Highway 7 - Highway 7 to Carns Bridge - Carns Bridge to Highway 137	- 6 adults and 3 nests - 4 adults - 4 adults	- 6 adults and 2 nests - 5 adults and 1 nest - 2 adults and 1 nest
2006 - 13-25 June - Highway 183 Bridge to Highway 7 Bridge - 12 June to 7 July - Carns Bridge to Highway 137	- colony 1 with 16 nests; colony 2 with 5 nests - 11 nests	- colony 1 with 9 nests; colony 2 with 4 nests - 6 nests
2007 - Highway 183 to Highway 7 - 22 June: - 27 June: - 6 July:	- 4 adults and nest with eggs - 2 adults - 2 adults	- 6 adults and nest with eggs - 6 adults and two additional nests, 3 fledged chicks - 6 plovers, 3 chicks
* Numbers given represent the highest seasonal count.

The count numbers for 2007 are exceptionally less, being the least number seen in any of the years with available survey results. There is no exact reason for this loss, according to Park Service staff.

Extensive rainfall from several early storms during the breeding season may have influenced the nesting by these species.

On May 5th a slow moving system dumped some rain, giving Valentine a record rainfall exceeding 1.25 inches. Tornadoes were reported, with hail prevalent. Ainsworth reported 4.3 inches in town and 5.83 inches elsewhere that washed out county roads.

Showers and thunderstorms brought a rainfall of 3.44 inches to Ainsworth on May 30th. Valentine had 1.73 inches.

On June 12th, another intense weather system moved through the Niobrara valley. Rainfall measured 1.97 inches at Valentine. O'Neill had 1.92 inches. Atkinson had a report for 1.62 inches. A flash flood watch was issued for the 13th, as showers continued. Weather reports indicated wide-spread 1-2" rainfall reports throughout the drainage of the Niobrara.

Another extensive storm accompanied by large hail hit the region on June 21st.

The magnitude of precipitation from these storms likely flooded the channel of the Niobrara River, with an influx from some tributaries adding to the flows. These weather events may have had an impact on the bird nests on the riverine sandbars inundated by higher water flows.

Least Tern nest along the Niobrara River.

Piping Plover nest along the Niobrara River.

The primary nest initiation dates for the Least Tern in 2006 were during June to early July, according to the Park Service survey report. For Piping Plover the period extends from latter May to early July.

Flooding may have been a recurring event during the breeding season, resulting in the low population when an initial survey was done in latter June.

Summary of number of birds surveyed along the scenic river section of the middle Niobrara River.
Year	Least Tern	Piping Plover	Notes
1982	25	8	aerial survey
1983	7	5	aerial survey
1984	10	6	aerial survey
1985	16	20
1987	10	8	aerial survey
1996	5	4
2001	15	10
2002	14	13	An adult and a juvenile Least Tern were at Cornell Dam in late July
2006	32, 22	18, 8	Highway 183 Bridge to Highway 7 Bridge, and Carns Bridge to Highway 137
2007	4	6	Three plover chicks fledged; defensive adult terns but no actual nesting success noted

Several large sandbars which appeared suitable for use by terns or plovers, did not have either, according to the season's summary report. At a colony location near Carns, "4-wheeler tracks criss-crossed the sandbar" that seemed promising for tern or plover use, the survey report said. There were 25 Killdeer present. Elsewhere, including between the Carns Bridge and Highway 137, a large number of Killdeer were present, raising the question if this species was out-competing the tern or smaller plover.

In 2006 on another obviously suited sandbar, the species showed the largest numbers recorded for these species within the scenic river section. Habitat had to be expansive enough for the many sites used for nesting. The counts indicate the extent of birds that can occur when there is exceptional, suitable habitat. Fewer Least Tern could be expected where there is a lesser extent of suitable sandbars habitat.

Piping Plover would be influenced by the river factors that create suitable habitat.

During the 2006 season, a smaller colony on the segment Highway 183 Bridge to Highway 7 Bridge was affected by two influences. The "sandbar experienced several weather events and cattle damages that led to multiple re-nest attempts by both species," according to the survey report. There was a large colony along the Carns Bridge to Highway 137 stretch, with 11 tern nests and 6 plover nests. "A large rain event wiped this colony off the river in early July."

Notable are the 1982 numbers for a colony on the river a few kilometers east of Meadville. Activities at this lively breeding place were gathered during avifauna studies in 1983 for the Niobrara Valley Preserve, after it was established. The colony had several plover nests and more than 15 chicks noted on July 22nd. There were nests with 3 eggs, chicks and a flying fledgling for the Least Tern on July 24th. The sandbar here was apparently very suitable habitat.

Survey results indicate there are usually fewer tern and plover during recent breeding seasons. There are enough exceptions to these lesser counts for larger numbers. There are no apparent trends or obvious population level represented. The numbers seem to highly variable to determine an average. The numbers do suggest a regular population of more than 15 Least Tern could be expected from the Highway 183 Bridge to east of Meadville. There could a similar number of Piping Plover. Habitat has more limitations in this region than further down the river, and is possibly the greatest limiting factor along the river.

Other facets which may have a role in the occurrence of these two species along the Niobrara, may include the extent of habitat along the Missouri National Recreation River influencing the bird's use of the running water tributary. Do fewer birds occur on the Niobrara when habitat is more prevalent on the wide variety of Missouri river sandbars?

Extensive and detailed Least Tern and Piping Plover surveys are conducted on the MNRR each season by Corps of Engineer staff.

Niobrara Tern and Plover Populations

The Niobrara River population of Least Tern and Piping Plover is highly variable, based on a summary of some survey results from aerial counts, and recent ground-based investigations.

Populations for the Niobrara River. Given is a summary of values recorded for multiple segments, sometimes with multiple entries referring to a colony locale. These estimates are based on several accounts added together to furnish an approximate total for the river. Detail survey information is courtesy of the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission and National Park Service.
Survey Information	Least Tern	Piping Plover
1977, 30 June - Mariaville to Spencer Dam	7	4
1978, 27-29 June - mouth to Mariaville	40	44
1979, 17 and 26 July - mouth to Highway 183, and westward from Meadville	45	No count data
1980, 13-14 July - mouth to Highway 183	82	No count data
1981, 5-7 July - Pischelville to Highway 183	87	92
1982, 1-2 and 13-14 July - mouth to Meadville	80	19 in partial count
1983, 20-22 June - mouth to Highway 183; mid-July, Highway 183 to Meadville	106	59
1984: 19-22 June - mouth to Highway 183	142	38 in partial count
1985 30 May - mouth to Mariaville 4-6 June - mouth to Highway 183 23-25 July - mouth to Highway 183	- 79 - 183 - 110	- NA - 114 - 60
1987 9-11 June - mouth to Highway 183 6-19 June - mouth to Mariaville 13-15 July - mouth to Highway 183	- 115, with more than 50 nests - 109 - 68	- 98, with more than 55 nests - 85 - 91 with nests and chicks
1988 14-16 June - mouth to Mariaville 19-20 July - mouth to Mariaville	- 181, more than 80 nests - 124, with 47 chicks noted	- 83, with more than 35 nests - 54, with 22 chicks noted
2001, 5-8 June - mouth to Meadville	148, with about 40 nests	88, with about 25 nests
2007 - 22 June - Highway 183 to Highway 7 - Lower Niobrara River	- 4 - 33	6 - 19

Counts doing using consistent survey methods in recent years has improved the means for devising the river's population of these two species. Populations can readily exceed 125 Least Tern and 75 Piping Plover, with greater numbers when suitable habitat conditions are more prevalent.

Niobrara River locales.