Etiology of Naming the Niobrara River

One of the most important regions of avian biogeography of the Great Plains is the Niobrara River. Historic studies have discovered and revealed bird hybridizations and range extensions for certain species along the valley of its running water.

Another interesting aspect of the effervescent river are the origins of its name, so indicative of its natural character.

When the Lewis and Clark expedition passed the mouth of the river, a journal entry in 1804 state: "the Rapid River, or, as it is called by the French, la Rivere qui Court. This river empties into the Missouri in a course S.W. by W. and is 152 yards wide and four feet deep at the confluence." This was translated into the "the river which runs," based on a translation of the French derived some other original source, perhaps from a local Indian tribe or based on the characteristics of the river itself. A editorial footnote for the name states that the name has been "corrupted into Quicoure, Quicurre, Quicure, Quecure, sometimes 'Quicum' by misprint."

The map for this section of the great journey, shows the river with the name "Quicourre."

The name as it is currently presented appears to be a derivation based on the language of the Omaha or at the time two centuries ago, the "Omawhaw" Indians. These native people had a territory along the Missouri River, but knew of the predominant river to their west.

In an account about these people in 1820, the journals from the U.S. government expedition led by Stephen M. Long refer to this river. Decisions were being made in the spring on which route to follow in their western explorations beyond the Engineer Cantonment, and the valley of this river was being considered.

"If it be decided to depart immediately, the subject to be taken into view will be the direction, extent, and object of our route; whether it would be proper to ascent the Running-Water creek, (Ne-bra-ra, or Spreading water), or the Platte, Ne-bres-kuh, or Flat water)," ...

An later entry, referred to same river using the name "Quicourre."

These are some of the oldest known references to the river, with the most similar spelling to the currently used Niobrara name, as it was designated on the 1823 map of the region explored during the expedition.

More than three decades later, another government expedition of 1855-1857 referred to the river as the Niobrara:

"The Niobrara being a stream heretofore unknown, and one in which the people of Nebraska feel much interest, I shall describe it in detail," were the first words from the lengthy and descriptive paragraph. Several of the tributary waterways were discussed using their names based on their tribal designations.

In 1866, a missionary on a route from Fort Randall, crossed the Missouri River and came to an agency associated with the Ponca Tribe. "When the sun was low we crossed the Niobrara, or Running Water, as it is called here. The name is Ponca, and properly means Swift Water, it is said. It is broad and shallow and swift, with moving sands in the bottom, - an ugly stream to cross," according to the letter written by Mr. Riggs.

By this era, the name Niobrara River was firmly in place and would continue to be the recognized and proper name for the waterway.

Further information on the origins of the name would subsequently get published, especially in a revealing account about the history of place-names used in the state of Nebraska.

"The name is an approximation of the Omaha-Ponca designation of Ni obthatha ke. This name was given in reference to its characteristic spreading during freshets over its flood plain. Ni means 'water,' and obthatha or ubthatha denotes, 'spreading'; the article ke refers to something in a horizontal position, and in connection with the name of a stream it carries the connotation of a stream flowing through a plain. The meaning thus would be 'water spreading and flowing through a plain,' 'Spreading Water River,' or briefly, 'Spreading River,' 'Wide River,' names descriptive of a condition that holds true in the lower course of the stream.

For the Dakota, the river was called "Mini tanka Wakpa. The word mini is their word for 'water,'; tanka is the equivalent of 'big,' 'great,' 'grand,' and in connection with a stream it embodies the idea of 'a wide stream'; wakpa is their word for 'river.' It has been translated as 'Big River' or "Grand River' and 'Big Water.' For the contemporary Dakota tribe, the Niobrara is called the "Mniblaska, meaning 'Flat Water' because it is a wide shallow stream."

The Pawnee name, according to this place name history, was Kits'kakis, hence the name would be swift or "Rapid River." This tribe, resided along the lower Loup, or Wolf River, along the eastern Platte River, and actually would probably have occurred along the rapid river to a very limited extent.

For the Cheyenne, the name was "Hisse yovi yoe," the "sudden, or unexpected river," or "surprise river" based on tribal members unexpectedly coming across the river during historic times, according to the place name history denoted by George Bird Grinnell. There was no waterway apparent, yet it suddenly occurred. This would have been in the western portion of the river's valley.

The spreading waters of the Niobrara River would most likely refer to the dynamic shift in the character of the channel. This river is one of many faces as it enter the state of Nebraska at its western boundary, and flows eastward.

For the western Lakota and others of this historic era, the river in its western extent was a subtle channel hidden in its valley. There was little to indicate its presence until being closely approached.

Botanist Joseph N. Nicollet went past the river in 1823, and called it "Eau qui court", as shown on the subsequent map "Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi River" issued in 1843. Nicollet was perhaps the first cartographer for the newly created Topographical Engineers. This is an interesting map for the number of Indian names shown for the different waterways.

The name "Ni-obrarah" was, however, the prominent name used, probably because this name had become the prominent moniker by this time in history.

A Dynamic river

With an increasing flow, the river etched across the land an incised valley, where the waters ran in a constricted channel beneath bluffs of sandstone created by the pervasive cuts of flowing springs or tributaries caused by the flow of groundwater established in the grassland dunes of the sandhills.

As the river drops along eastward, its channel features change. In the modern era, this it known to occur in the lower third of the river valley, but historically there were no predominant landmarks such as geographic longitude, county boundaries or settlements to use as reference points.

It would have still, nonetheless, been obvious that the river spread across the floor of its valley as it extended further eastward. The west had its relatively narrow and deeper channel where the constricted and rapid flow of the waters. Eastward of 100^o latitude, the broader valley allowed the channel to have a greater width with a shallower depth. This would be a perfect indication of a "spreading water river," a change because of geomorphology, rather than a name derived due to any high flow from rare seasonal "freshets" where water would spread across a constricted floodplain.

Whatever the origin, the river as it was known was certainly known to the tribes of the region. The details are all history, and are an interesting subject for any aficionado of one of the most unique rivers of the northern plains.

Bird Apparel a Stylish Attire for Native North Americans Since 1500

© 2008 James Ed. Ducey.

An obvious splash of color in the many worlds of people across North America may have also been the material used for a stunning fashion statement in past centuries. The winged ones were prevalent as little songsters, in flocks on land, or as dark skeins moving against the sky. They revealed an infinite variety of sizes and shape ... animal provisions at each of the many places well known to the providers of survival for the tribe. A swan or fat autumn goose would roast well over a day's camp fire. The carcass could provide special things perhaps, a spiritual totem, a small and right-sized water bag, rarely a bird-bone whistle, or just serve to keep the kids warmly dressed during winter's chill.

Explorers of various sorts from across the Atlantic Ocean ventured forth on visits to the new world of America, providing the first descriptions of wild bird material use by local cultures. Sea-faring Vikings saw things and returned with spoken legends of eider birds on the north Atlantic coast, among other things. It was a bit more than 500 years ago for the first account of plumes being worn as decor for the outfits of women on the Bahaman Islands.

Only a few words within the chronicle kept during weeks, months or years reveals a utilitarian and ceremonial variety of uses for different parts of a dead bird. In the exploratory men's writing, when not speaking of gamey grouse or turkeys eaten for dinner, their scrawled inscriptions refer to coats, cloaks, garlands, and a special mantle. Water-shedding skins served well when worn as clothing. Turkey feathers were sewn into a quilted cover for sleeping. Single feathers or wings with color and pattern were an especially important feature for many tribal ceremonies. A feather hat was a distinct bit of grandeur for the rulers ceremonial garb.

Use of bird skins as material for garments reaches a pinnacle in the latter 1770s, with numerous notations from the Pacific Northwest, land of the Eskimos. The Common Eider meant survival for those people.

With an unbeatable style of color and durability, items made from a wild bird are described by writing visitors to Yucatan, New Netherland, New Spain, Carolina, Acadia, Alaska, the Louisiana Territory and elsewhere during the period of exploration in the New World. Most of the known instances of the use of bird material as worn apparel are from the United States of America, but also Canada and Greenland. Panama is also represented.

Various bird material is briefly described, often just the generic term of bird being scribed. Apparent types or species include the parrot, Wild Turkey, Chachalaca, geese, swan, eider, murre, gull, loon, eagle, cormorant and guillemot.

The following summary provides details for bird-motif garments, feather plumes, garlands and other worn objects in history for more than three hundred years. Examples are from oldest to most recent account. The designated placenames typically use the original names given in the chronicles.

1500s

Guadeloupe Island, Bahama Islands: women wearing plumes noted; 10 Apr 1496 by members of the Christopher Columbus expedition around the balmy West Indies and Caribbean Sea.

Rio de Grijalva, Yucatan, Mexico: cloak of feathers and its plumes noted in 1518 in account by Las Casas on the expedition of Juan de Grijalva during the discovery of New Spain.

Annunciata, North Carolina: native peoples "dressed in birds' feathers of various colors" noted during Giovanni de Verrazzano voyage in 1524 along the Atlantic coast.

Mouth of Hudson River, New York: garlands of bird feathers, "inhabitants not differing much from the others, being dressed out with the feathers of birds of various colours" by John de Verazzano in 1524.

Colorado River, Bay of California, Arizona, California: "the women goe naked, and weare a great wreath of feathers behind them" and references to certain feathers of parrots. The 1540 exploration by Captain Fernando Alarchon.

Chief Satouriona, Fort Caroline at River May, Florida. Drawing on display at Fort Caroline National Memorial.

Fort Caroline at the River May: bird effigy, "At the leave-taking the king gave the captain a plume of egret feathers, dyed red, and a basket ..." During the first voyage of the French to Florida during 1562, under the leadership of Captain Jean Ribault.

Charles-Fort, South Carolina: "being painted and trimmed with rich feathers of divers colours", house hanged about with a tapestry of feathers of diverse colors. During the voyage to establish Fort Caroline and around the River May by Rene Laudonniere in 1564-1565.

San Felipe, New Mexico: especially for sleeping, quilts made of turkey feathers, also feather quilts used in place of cloaks; 2 Feb 1583 in chronicle of Hernan Gallegos during the rediscovery of New Mexico 1580-1594. Includes records from Chamuscado, Antonio Espejo, Castano de Sosa, Morlete, and Leyva de Bonilla and Humana.

Acoma - New Mexico: women wearing Mexican blankets, very elegant with colors, feathers, and other trappings; 6 Mar 1583 account by Antonio Espejo.

Gilbert's Sound, Greenland: "brought their clothes from their backes, which were all made of seale skins and birdes skinnes." By navigator John Davis in 1585.

Pueblo de los Angeles, California: "crownes were made of knit work wrought artificially with feathers of divers colours"; 1597 letter from the pueblo.

1600s

Groenland, or Greenland: seal and fowle skins, with the feather side inwards, found in their tents; 1605 James Hall account of Cunningham's Danish expedition.

Georges Harbor, Maine: "other ware the white feathered skins of some fowle, round about their head, iewels in their eares, and bracelets of little white round bone." In James Rosier narrative for Waymouth voyage in 1605.

Itivdlek Fjord, Greenland: "certaine coates of seale and fowle skins, with the feather side inward"; on 12 Jun 1605 by Danish expedition.

Lower Bay, New Jersey: "this day many of the people came aboard, some in mantles of feathers"; 5 Sep 1609 by Henry Hudson, leader of the sailors that discovered Hudson Bay.

Maine, New-England: with rich feathers ladies plume their head; 1625 narrative verse by William Morrell.

Santiago de Guatemale, Guatemala: Bird effigy, feathered banners and headdresses. In summer of 1630 by friar Thomas Gage in the Spanish America.

Bay du Noquet, Wisconsin: "clothed in large garment of Chinese damask, sprinkled with flowers and birds of different colors"; 1634 by Jean Nicolet, exploring the northwest. This is an intriguing notation, since the use of an item of Chinese origin would indicate oceanic trade.

Long Island, New York: "a mantle, a fathom square, of woven turkey feathers or peltries sewed together"; in 1644 from an anonymous author journal of New Netherland.

Manhattan Island, New York: coats made of turkey feathers; 1650 representation report from local officials.

Rendezvous Fort, Minnesota: "they cut some down or swan or other fowl that hath a white feather and cover with it the crown of their head"; Pierre Espirit Radisson narrative in 1662.

Gaspesia, Quebec: "colours ... for representing upon their garments certain figures of wild beasts, birds"; four colours red, white, black and yellow; 1680 by Father Chrestien le Clercq in New Relation.

Isthmus of Darien, Panama: Indians make a sort of apron from back feathers of the chicaly-chicaly, or chachalaca; pelican pouch used to make tobacco pouch by seamen. Surgeon Lionel Wafer in 1681.

Cahaynohoua Nation, Arkansas: sword-blade and calumet adorned with several sorts of feathers; July 1687 in Henri Joutel journal of Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle explorations in New France. Explored the Mississippi River.

Villages des Cenis, Arkansas: "plumes of feathers of several colours, on their heads"; Joutel journal in March 1687; turkey feathers on their heads, noted in Apr 1687.

Cappa Village, Riviere de Ommas, Arkansas: "wearing plumes of several colours, wherewith they adorn their heads"; Joutel journal on 1 Aug 1687.

1700s

River of the Pounika, Louisiana: men and women have mantles of turkey feathers; 13 Nov 1700 during Father Gravier voyage.

Village of the Houmas, Louisiana: robe of muskrat skins or turkey feathers; December 1700 during Father Gravier's missionary travels in the Illinois territory.

Port Royal, Acadia, Nova Scotia, Canada: papoose wrapped in skins of swans, and wild geese; in 1700, Sieur de Diereville history of the Indians.

Settlement of Santee, South Carolina: "chief doctor or physician, who was warmly and neatly clad with a match-coat, made of turkies feathers, which makes a pretty shew, seeming it was a garment of the deepest silk shag"; 10 Jan 1701 on a new voyage to Carolina by John Lawson.

Adak Island, Alaska: wear on head a hat decorated with various colors and feathers; 9 Sep 1741 in narratives of the Vitus Bering voyages from Kamchatka.

York Fort, Manitoba, Canada: "caps of woollen cloth ... and at the corner which will be upon the crown of the head a bit of rabbits down sewed on, or a red feather"; also noted, Indians will buy laced hats with a dyed feather stuck up in them; also stick feathers in hair; 1747 in notes by a trading company clerk in the store at the fort.

Lower and Upper Louisiana, U.S.A.: in 1758, several uses of bird items were noted in the translated journal of Le Page du Pratz in this territorial expanse west of the Mississippi and beyond the Platte rivers.

• Swan feathers used to make diadems for hats,
• Small feathers weaved into coverings for the women;
• Young people make tippets made of the skin, with down;
• Sailors make tobacco purse from dried pelican pouch;
• Natives make fans of the tail;
• Four tails joined together make the French an umbrella; and,
• Women weave feathers in their hair.

New Herrnhuth at Balls River, Greenland: eider-fowl skin - Greenlanders and Europeans make their finest warmest under-garments of eider-fowl skin; under-garments made of willock (murre) skins. In 1767, from English translation for David Crantz history.

Presidio of Santa Fe, New Mexico: Bird effigy, "They adorn their heads with bonnets trimmed with feathers in different ways." In September 1767 for Apache Indians, noted by Don Nicolas de Lafora.

Cape Charles at Cape Charles Harbour, Labrador, Canada: Indians were sucking the fat from eider-duck skins, intended for winter garments. In 1771 by Captain George Cartwright at the northern Atlantic coast of Canada.

Port de la Bodega at Point de Arenas in October 1775, or San Francisco Bay, California, by the second pilot, Don Francisco Antonio Maurelle:

"A vast number of Indians now presented themselves on both points, who passed from one to the other in small canoes made of Fule, where they talked loudly for two hours or more, till at last two of them came along side the ship, and most liberally presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head, and a canister of seeds, which tasted much like walnuts. Our captain gave them in return, bugles, looking glasses, and peices of cloth."

This was during a visit by the schooner Sonora in October 1775. There were also large flocks of pigeons noted, and a parakeet like bird. At an earlier temporary port in mid-June, the small paroquet and parrots were mentioned. The locale was given as 41'7o north, though its loation is not certain on the expediton map.

Button-Mole-Bay, New York: Indian war dance; others decorated with a great quantity of feathers; many in nudity, one had tied a blackbird before him. Letter on 24 Jun 1777 by Thomas Anburey on his travels.

Samgoonoodha Harbour, Alaska: "jackets of the men are made of the skins of the Uril and Arjen, the former is a kind of water raven"; the uril is the cormorant, and the arjen the Oldsquaw, the editor interprets. On 28 June, an undergarment was noted as being "made of bird skins dressed with the feathers on and neatly sewn together, the feathered side he wore next to his skin; it was mended and patched." In 1778 during Captain James Cook voyages of discovery.

Island of Nawanalaska, Alaska: "dress consists of a bird-skin frock." On 26 Oct 1778 in the David Samwell journal from the Cook voyages.

Nipigon Bay, Ontario: feathers of birds among tribal items, or "pequim" in Chippeway language; wing of birds: "gwimbitch" is the Chippeway word. In 1778, from the journal of John Long among the Indians.

St. Augustine, Florida: "Around their heads they wore folded headbands about four inches wide in which were stuck three or four feathered plumes." On 8 Dec 1784 by Don Vizente Manuel de Zespedes y Velasco, governor of St. Augustine upon a visit by Indian chiefs from the Lower Creek and Seminole towns. A conference was held at the town plaza.

Northern Lands

Greenland: garments made of the skins of the black-backed gull (great black-backed gull) these and other water-fowl. Natives use skins of the northern diver (loon) for clothing, and Indians about Hudson's Bay adorn their heads with circlets of their feathers. North America: Indians make a most elegant clothing of the feathers, they also make fans of the tails. This information dates to ca. 1785 as given in the Arctic Zoology tome by Thomas Pennant.

Chenega, Prince William Sound area, Alaska: image of mans coat made of eagle skins, with down feathers retained, that were used as rain coats by the Chugach Eskimo; 10 eagle, 15 cormorant or 20 guillemot skins were needed for a coat. The flesh side of the skin was worn next to the body. Three eagle skin Chenega coats from this area are in the Museum fur Volkerkunde at Berlin. From the 1785 era of the James Cook voyage.

Prince William Sound, Alaska: "In warm weather they often wear a most beautiful dress made of a bird's skins with the feathers outward. These dresses are shaped like a shirt, and the finest of them are made from the skins of the breasts of swans." From chronicle of Alexander Walker voyage of 1786 in the Pacific Northwest.

District of Nootka, British Columbia, Canada: cap made of matting ornamented with painted representations of birds and other animals, and fastened with a leather thong; in 1788. At Port Meares, British Columbia: the King, Tianna, presented Captain Douglas two long-feathered cloaks. On 10 Dec 1788, from the John Meares narrative, coming from China to the north-west coast of America.

Lake of the Hills, Saskatchewan, Canada. In preparing for war, the men of the Knisteneaux Indian tribe had a ritual. "The next article is his war-cap, which is decorated with the feathers and plumes of scarce birds, beavers, and eagle's claws, &c. There is also suspended from it a quill or feather for every enemy whom the owner of it has slain in battle. ... Their headdresses are composed of the feathers of the swan, the eagle, and other birds. The teeth, horns and claws of different animals, are also the occasional ornaments of the head and neck. ... appearance of the men, whose faces are painted with more care than those of the women." From the general history of the Fur Trade in central Canada, written by Alexander Mackenzie.

Great Bear River Confluence, Northwest Territories, Canada: cap made of leather 1.5 inches wide embroidered with porcupine quills and stuck round with the claws of bears or wild fowls inverted; 5 Jul 1789 by Sir Alexander Mackenzie on his explorations for the trading company. He was the first person known to have traversed the North American continent.

Kightak Kadiak, Alaska: skins used for dresses, 1790 by Joseph Billings to northern Russia region. Oonalashka, Alaska: men wear a parka of birds' skins, sometimes the feathers outward, and sometimes inward; 5 Jun 1790 by Joseph Billings on another expedition to the northern parts of Russia.

[image Billings]

Spicer Islands, British Columbia: skins given to chief; "it being reckoned an uncommon fineness in their dress to have it together with their hair, strew'd over with the down of birds"; 8 Jul 1795 voyage of Captain Charles Bishop about the Pacific Northwest.

Turtle Lake, Minnesota: the beautiful spotted skins of loons make favorite caps for the natives, the Chippaway. On 27 Apr 1798 in the travel narrative of David Thompson in western North America.

Lewis and Clark Expeditioneers

There is a compelling variety of notes in the lengthy and varied journals for the Lewis and Clark expedition across the Louisiana Territory; going across the Rocky Mountains and to the great bay at the mouth of the Columbia River, and coast of the Pacific Ocean. Then back to St. Louis by river.

• Calumet Bluff, southern bank of Missouri River, several miles west of the River Jacque, Nebraska: "the Warriers are Verry much deckerated with Paint Porcupin quils & feathers, large leagins & mockersons, all with buffalow roads of Different Colours." Capt. Clark wrote; 30 Aug 1804, while at a camp.
• Bad Humored Island, upriver from Teton River (cf. Bad River), South Dakota: "...men perticularly, they grease & Black themselves when they dress, make use of Hawks feathers about their heads, cover with a Roab..." Clark wrote on 26 Sep 1804. Drums and whistles provided music, Joseph Whitehouse wrote in his entry for the 27th. Perhaps birds were an inspiration for any whistling songs while showy garb was worn at the social celebration of the autumn for the Teton Sioux. There were 80 dancers whooping at the event, held soon after the great battle when 65 Omaha were killed, and 25 women were taken as prisoners.
• Lemhi Valley, along East Fork Lewis River; Idaho: Shoshone men sometimes add wings and tails of birds as an adornment in their hair, Capt. Lewis wrote on 21 Aug 1805. The Shoshone were especially fond of the feathers of the tail of the beautiful eagle or calumet bird. These feathers also used to adorn the manes and tails of their horses. Clark noted also how they strung the feathers and ornaments of birds.
• Rapids of the Snake River, near confluence of the Clearwater River, Idaho: "otter skin about their necks hair Cewed in two parsels hanging forward over their Shoulders, feathers, and different Coloured Pints which they find in their country" Clark wrote; cf. 10 Oct 1805.
• Mouth of the Lewis River or Kimooenim River, eastern Washington: the people wore "trinkets of shells, small bones and curious feathers" Clark wrote on 17 Oct 1805. In the entry for his journal on this Sunday, Patrick Gass mentioned that the Indians about the camp wore robes, some made of loon-skins.
• Station Camp, coast of the most eastern extent of Haleys Bay, at mouth of the Columbia River, Washington: "men were a roabe of either the skins of __ a small fured animal, & which is most common, or the Skins of the Sea orter, Loon, Swan, Beaver, Deer, Elk or blankets either red blu, or white" it said in Clark's entry for Thursday, 21 Nov 1805.
• Fort Clatsop, coastal Oregon: Indians decorate their caps and bonnets with the tail feathers of the calumet eagle; discusses the colours as being black and white which which it is beautifully variegated, Clark wrote. Then it goes on to discuss eagle lore, including its importance to tribes on the northern Plains. The journal entry was for 11 Mar 1806, and also discussed how the feathers decorate sacred pipes, or calumets.
• Camp Chopunnish, along Koos-koos-kee or Flathead River, about a mile from Commearp Creek, Idaho: golden eagle feathers used for head dresses. On 9 Jun 1806 in journal of John Ordway.

Pike Explores

Falls of Pakagama, Minnesota: feather pillow; "On returning to the lodge of the chief, they found a bed prepared for each of them, of good soft bear skins; in addition to which Mr. Pike was furnished with a large feather pillow." Winter of 1805-1806 on Zebulon Montgomery Pike.

Central Canada

During the winter of 1808-1809, Alexander Henry the younger was at Fort Vermilion on a fork of the Saskatchewan River. In his condensed journal for the period, he noted for the Cree men: "Their cap is commonly a piece of leather or Skin, with the hair on, shaped to suit the head and tied under the chin, the top is usually trimmed or decorated with feathers or some other ornaments." The same tribe used feathers to provide trim for a hoop used in a game. Mentioned among the narrative was the Painted Feather Band of the Blackfeet Indians. For the Slave Indians, Henry noted "Their ornaments are few. Feathers, Quill Work and Human Hair, with Red White and Blue Earth constitute the whole apparatus."

Astorian

When company man Wilson P. Hunt was going westward in 1811-12 to Astoria near the mouth of the Columbia River, his notes refer to birds in a few, short instances. He did mention three examples of feathers or skins providing an important element to a local Indians' garb.

• Arickara villages beyond the Great Bend of the Missouri River, South Dakota: "...they wear gay coronets of plumes, particularly those of the swan, but the feathers of the black eagle are considered the most worthy." On 9 Jul 1810.
• Camp near a water course along the Snake River; southern Idaho: noted for the Chochonis people at three huts, "each has a garment of the skin of bison, rabbit, badger, fox, or wolf, or perhaps of ducks' skins sewn together" as noted 14 Nov 1811.
• Akaitchis Lodges near the mouth of the Walla Walla River at the Columbia River, southern Washington on 21 Jan 1812: the inhabitants, "... their clothing consists of only a scanty mantle of the skin of bison, deer, rabbit or fox or else of duck. They sometimes add to this a pair of sleeves of wolfskin."

Mississippian

As Edouard de Montule was on shore from the steamboat Vesuvius heading up the Mississippi River, the journal entry noted an important accessory, than was more than adornment. When at Point-Pleasant, in the Missouri-Territory west of Tennessee, an Indians wife was in a shed built in a courtyard. Other items mentioned that were with her included "a bone needle, ... sacks made of hide, fans of turkey feathers for driving off mosquitoes, and other goods," the Frenchman write in his 15th letter. The actual date was 2 Jun 1817.

Missourian

With the Stephen Long expedition moving up the Missouri River, there was further contact with the locals. On 22 Aug 1819, near the mouth of the Konzas river, Edwin James wrote: "sometimes a tail feather of the war eagle is attached transversely with respect to the head; this feather is white at base, and black at tip;" but the principal ornament was the tail of the common deer.

During a time of meet and greet, a leading Indian was adorned with a bird skin. James wrote for 3 Oct 1819: "This singular decoration is a large cushion, made of the skin of a crow, stuffed with light material and variously ornamented; it has two decorated sticks projecting from it upward, and a pendant one beneath; this apparatus is secured upon the buttocks by a girdle passing round the body."

When some Siouxian indians visited to view the Western Engineer, the steam boat tied at its winter berth, on November 15th, the narrative says of the Teton, Yancton and Sa-hon-ne warriors: "... as visitors they are clothed in their best attire. They decorate their hair with a profusion of feathers of the war eagle, and of a species of owl, which we have not seen. They also suspend in the head dress an entire skin of the paroquet."

In spring along the Missouri River at the cantonment on 27 Apr 1820, Mr. James recalled in his journal a warrior, about twenty-three, "of the finest form, tall, muscular, exceedingly graceful, and of a most prepossessing countenance. His head dress of war eagles' feather, descended in a double series upon his back like wings, to his saddle croup; his shield was highly decorated, and his long lance was ornamented by a plaited casing of red and blue cloth."

These items were more a bird effigy item than a garment, but in the context given were an important piece of apparel.

Northern Indians

In mid-July 1820, when Henry Schoolcraft was moving along with the Cass expedition through central Minnesota, he noted in his journal, that the northern Indians "possess a great fondness for grosteque ornaments of feathers, skins, bones, and claws of animals."

Parry Expedition

North of Nottingham Island, near Queens Cape and Kings Cape, at the western Hudson Strait, when several canoes came to the ships Fury and Hecla. "Many of the jackets of these people, and particularly those of the females, were lined with the skins of birds, having the feathers inside; and they had, also, in the boat several other skins in a prepared state, taken from the throat of the colymbus glacialis, which splendid bird, though we had twice found its skin in possession of the Esquimaux, we had yet not met with ourselves." This was in the 1 Aug 1821 entry of the narrative for the expedition commanded by Captain William E. Parry.

Columbia River

When John Kirk Townsend, a zoologist visiting from the east was boating along the lower Columbia River, he watched and collected birds. The abodes at the time were trading forts of various sorts. In his catalogue of birds found in the Oregon Territory, he mentioned the use of bird skins in the mid-1830s. It was with the entry for the violet-green cormorant, or Phalacrocorax splendens (Townsend) or P. resplendens (Audubon) of the time: "The Indians of the N.W. coast make cloaks of the skins of this bird sewed together." Audubon illustrated the bird in his tome, Birds of America, plate 412, showing a female in winter.

The Osage

The importance of feather items continued to develop among the peoples. The use of bird material in 1840 is shown for the Charcoal Dance at camp of the Osage Indians, south from the Osage River, in the southeast Louisiana Territory. The visitor from France was 25-year-old Victor Tixier, a medical practioner. He mentioned birds often in his notes, first relating details of accessories during the May part of his visit: "Beads, backbones, snake-skins, stuffed birds, and feathers are also used as finery. The use of eagle feathers is limited to those who have stolen at least a horse from the enemy."

This is an August scene.

"The morning was spent hunting. Several unusual species were seen in the neighborhood: northern buzzards, yellow-headed starlings, Arkansas fly-cathers, a crowd of sparrows and warblers. ... I returned to camp; ... the war chief made the rounds of the lodges, exciting the young men.
"At one of the war fires a great heap of charcoal was pulverized and mixed with fat, and the chaudiere de guerre was put on the fire.
"The costumes of the dancers were very picturesque. Some wore deer tails placed on their heads like the crests of ancient helmets; others had their foreheads crowned with a band made of crows' beaks painted in green. They held now a spear, now a calumet, now a stick, sometimes a tomahawk, a fan, or the old fashioned war hatchet. Tufts of swan's down, eagle feathers, buffalo tails, small calabashes filled with pebbles, skins of white wolf and of panther were also parts of their attire with the wings of calumet bird (the bald eagle) which they used as a fan. The bravest warriors carried the corbeau the Head Chief alone held in his hand the well-known baton croche.
"The corbeau is an ornament made with the feathers of the crow; it is tied to an embroidered sash on the back of the wearer. The head and tail of the animal are the two ends of a waving muss of black feathers, attached to a cushion from which project four curved branches provided with porcupine quills and ending in a cluster of little bells. The side of the cushion which touches the body of the dancer is convex, so that when he jerks the branches violently, the feathers wave and the bells tinkle. The brave who has killed and scalped a man in the midst of his companions is the only one entitled to wear the crow during war dances. This ornament is carefully kept in a case of hardened bison skin; it is never worn on expeditions.
"The baton croche a stick bent to a semicircular shape and ornamented with swans down; little bells and eagle feathers hang to the convex part of its curve. It is the ensign of the red warriors, the flag which has to be brought back in perfect condition. The council of braves alone can designate the one who will carry the baton croche during the war expedition, and the one who obtains this distinction is for this reason acknowledged the bravest among the brave. He must be the first to rush to the enemy and show the road to victory to the Osage."

The Charcoal Dance (Medecine du Charbon). Drawn from life by Victor Tixier.

The dance lasted two days and then the war party set forth. There was anothe final mention of feathers: "A warrior of the Little Osage brought a fragment of a scalp stretched on a wooden ring ornamented with swansdown." This was the last notation as Tixier soon left the tribe.

Summary

The value of birds as an effigy continued elsewhere on the plains in the following decades. The war headdress made from calumet eagle feathers would become a predominant icon. There are also examples of the importance of birds in tribal lore and mythology. Other chronicles continued to depict in vivid writings, the broad array of significance of the winged ones to the lives of the people.

Bird items were used for a wide variety of Indian wear during the 350 years considered. Although most of the known records are from the U.S.A., the Bahama Islands, Canada, Greenland, Mexico and Panama are also represented. As the extent of travels with chronicles increased, so does the information recorded on habits expressed in garments.

A summary shows the most different examples are the hat, coat, parka, dress, and jacket items from Alaska (8). Other states are:
Washington ~ 4 Idaho ~ 4, typically as an effigy adornment Louisiana ~ 4, including robes, a mantle, feather crowns and fans New York ~ 4, a mantle, coat and garlands Nebraska ~ 4, adornments used as effigy items Minnesota ~ 3, as a hat, or as ornamentation Maine ~ 2 Oregon ~ 2 South Carolina ~ 2	California ~ 2 Arkansas ~ 2 South Dakota ~ 2 New Mexico ~ 1 New Jersey ~ 1 Wisconsin ~ 1 North Carolina ~ 1 Kansas ~ 1 Lower Colorado River, along Arizona and California ~ 1 Missouri ~ 1

The rich variety presents a wonderful view of tribal awareness of the local habitants, and how they people adapted resources for their benefit in a functional or symbolic manner. The ceremonial diversity was as varied as the imaginations captivated by the shape, size or color - if not all three - aspects of a wild bird.

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Ungava Inuit

Diagram of the pattern for sewing skins to create an eider parka. Illustration by Zarah Chun, in Coats of Eider.

Modern-era research shows how Ungava Inuit at the Belcher Islands in Hudson Bay, started using eider ducks in the late 1800s to "meet their basic needs," including "food, medicinal purposes, home, tools and clothing." The skins are also used to make footwear. Wings were trimmed and used as whisk brooms. Feet were used as small containers to carry water. Down collected in small amounts from nests was used to insulate clothing such as parkas, pants, mitts, hats, stockings, slippers and bunting bags.

"Wing feathers had many uses. Secondary wing feathers with pointed shafts were used for toothpicks. Wing feathers wee used to clean out gun barrels and as arrow fletching. They were also jammed into empty rifle cartridges and used by children as projectiles. The secondary wing feathers were peeled off with the skin and used as rags.

"Parts of the eider were also used to create a musical instrument. A secondary wing feather was plucked and the barbs were removed from the lower edge. It was then held loosely in one hand and vibrated next to one's teeth with the other hand. A melodious sound similar to that of a jew's harp was created." (Oakes 1991: 14-16.)

The birds are hunted in late October and November after they have finished molting. Their skin is ideal for clothing since it is thick and strong.

The steps for processing and preparing a skin, and how an item is sewn, are described. Also mentioned is how bags for storing sinew are made from loon skins. Feathers had particular uses.

Jill Oakes. 1991. Coats of Eider. Aboriginal Issues Press. 28 pages.

Western Diary Provides Distinct Birdlore for the 1834 High Plains

By James Ed. Ducey

The diary of William M. Anderson - a mid-20s lawyer from Kentucky - reveals distinct details for the history of birds of the High Plains of the west, and Nebraska.

Notes started on March 13, 1834 with departure from Louisville for a young man on to an adventure.

Departure from St. Louis for the western trails to the Rocky Mountains, was April 20th.

Some of the principals were then delivered by steamboat to Independence. An party of hearty fur-traders being led by William L. Sublette was being gathered. They started west on April 30th, riding along.

"We are encamped at the Sapling grove, about 20 miles from Independence. We are about 37 men strong - 95 horses. I am now out of the US. for the first time," Anderson wrote on May 5, 1834, when nearly daily entries started to be written in his journal.

The force of men and equipment went past tribal lodges and a village near the Kansas River. Vast quiet prairies were traversed. The trace continued along the upper Blue, with the first elk seen, and past the antelope.

In this area, the traders came upon the Nathaniel Wyeth party of 70 men and 250 horses, including zoologist John Kirk Townsend, with his bird watching, and botanist Thomas Nuttall. They were also going to the Green River rendezvous.

Near the Grand Island of the Platte, and the river road, they passed a spot where there had just been 60-70 lodges. The first buffaloe was soon chased, south of the river.

It was beyond the confluence of the South and North Platte where the first notation of a bird was scribed in the journal. Anderson certainly was impressed by the landscape.

"May, 27, 1834 - Of all the landscapes and scenery I ever saw, the view I had this morning was unsurpassed. It is a hill, in the range of those, which skirts the south side of the north fork of the Platte, the appearance of it is that of a castle situated upon a hill & commanding the country for 7 or 10 miles, down the river. The most delightful delusion was kept up until the base was within a very short distance. A most beautiful meadow-like plain was spread out before it. Flowers of every hue & odour bestarred the prairie. It would seem as if some wealthy scotch lord had fixed his aristocratic stronghold in the wilds of the new world. Antelopes and buffaloe were grazing in his extensive parks. To add to the charm and loveliness an active flowing stream broke out from its base and hastened to astonish the Platte with its clear waters. Would to God that I could design or describe well, tho I should then fail to do justice to this fascinating deception, I would nevertheless commemorate this scene for my own gratification! The chimney is a much more notorious point. It is singular truly, rising to an elevation of 150 feet, it is distinctly visible at the distance of thirty miles Tis a pyramid or rather a funnel inverted--"

At Robidoux Springs, beyond this chimney rock, was the night's camp about Scott's Bluff.

"May 29, 1834 - I saw to day, on horse creek for the first time, one manner of disposing of the dead, which was scaffolding - In the top of the tree fastened by chords of buffaloe hide, so firmly as to resist the wind for a long time, a frame upon which the deceased is placed with all of his movables - This body had fallen out, & the vacated place taken possession of by a hawk, who had deposited her eggs in the spot where the head of Sioux warrior lay. At the suggestion of Major Harris, Black H. one of my messmates I record for my future consideration, that on this evening, about 5 o'clock I bestrode a Caiac of my own slaughtering. We are within one days march of Laramy's fork."

In June the men and stuff were at Fitzpatrick's Cache, at the mouth of Sweetwater Canyon. "The different names which the mountain & stream now in sight, are thus translated - Seitski or ka-dee is in the Crow tongue, prairie cock - upon which there are great numbers of that bird," Anderson write in his June 11th diary entry.

The Sublette crew soon joined with men from the Rocky Mountain company. "We are a motley set, Whites, French, Yankees, Nes Perces, Flatheads, and Snakes, or Shoshones," Anderson said.

Everyone then went a few more miles to the confluence of the Hams Fork and the Black River for the grand rendezvous. The journals discuss each day antics, starting with June 19, 1834. On June 26, he mentioned "nothing in the camps, now but drunken songs & brawls night or day -" there on the frontier.

A young eagle then suddenly came on the scene. "My pet, the young eagle grows finely. The young gentleman is possessed of an admirable appetite," Anderson wrote on the 28th in his diary.

Alternate musings are given by a revised narrative for the day.

"June 28,1834 - We moved a few miles up the creek for fresh grass - I believe we have not had even a gentle shower for months - say two - I have a young eagle which I bear about from camp to camp - He rides very majestically on my pack-horse, looking farther into the surrounding prairies than any one else In the company, but whatever he sees or thinks, he sagely keeps to himself - The young gentleman has an excellent appetite and relishes buffaloe meat very much - I commend his taste. It gives me much pleasure to divide my meals with him."

The obvious raptor had to have been a big attraction among the tents, and throng of peoples at the mountain rendezvous. Perhaps it had been bought for a trifle from a voyageur wanting money for gambling games, instead of a needy bird. There was no further mention of the pet eagle.

Onward in the travel miles, notes refer to breeding snowbirds seen on the mountain-side as Anderson debated whether to ascend "Fame's proud temple" to search for horns of the mountain ram. Also the... "bird of the jay species here, resembling strongly the citizen of the states, but of a paler blue - no bands - no top knot - having the head, in front of the eyes & including them above and below, white." They were seen during an outing in the vicinity of the slopes of the Thompson Plateau.

After the Red Buttes, back at the North Platte, Anderson wrote on August 16th: "An anecdote told me to day of the 'blackbird,' chief of the Mohaws - sometime dead, evinces the despotic assuming tyrant as completely as any that history can shew. This chief when asleep, ordered that none should dare awake him save by tickling his nose with a feather. And upon no occasion could his subjects be induced to break this order - even tho an enemy approached." This is Chief Blackbird of the Omaha, upon the Missouri River.

Camp affairs and other affrays were featured in the diary for the interlude the next weeks with stops at Fort William and Fort Laramie. Wolves and wild horses were shot. Many buffalo were shot Ash Hollow, to make provisions. About 30 miles if not 32 or 35, was the average daily distance, typically along Pawnee trails. Anderson wrote that the Grand Island was 90 miles in length, 120 according to the Indians.

"This river, like all natural wonders, is an inscrutable mystery."

The Sublette party eventually reached the Loup Fork on September 8th, then overland a couple of days later, past the ruins of the old Council Bluff. Within two days they were resting at Fontenelle's Belle Vue, a "pretty situation well deserving the name it bears." The locale was on a bluff of the Missouri valley, north from the wide mouth of the Platte.

Sunday. "A large flock of pelicans rose from the river near us, & commenced their spiral ascent, mounting higher & higher as the clouds darkened and the noise increased, until they supposed that their elevation would secure them a passage from the shower of frozen grapeshot - Scarcely had they disappeared from the N.E. horizon when heavens musketry & cannister was fired upon the earth - then I felt indeed grateful that I was not shelterless upon the desert plains of the Platte..."

"September 15, 1834 - Monday. The storm has passed, & our flock of pelicans have returned in increased numbers. Much more numerous than the largest flocks of buzzards in the west."

The remaining party then floated down the Big Water in two canoes, propelled by six rowers.

A final reference to birds was upon a returned to some civilization at Lexington. The scribe mentioned: "the deep mouthed owl in lonely independence hooting to the midnight echoes of these shores, to hear the wolves in rapid discord howling on Missouris avalanching shores."

Anderson reached St. Louis on September 29, 1834, then boated to home, and a marriage to dear Eliza McArthur, the next February. Their first residence was in the mansion at Fruit Hill, outside Chillicothe. Reminiscence of the adventure were published in the American Turf Register in 1937.

After moving to Glen Mary, Mr. Anderson continued his outdoor pursuits, and being a prosperous farmer.

The two items mentioned for Nebraska were not included in Birds of the Untamed West. The History of Birdlife in Nebraska. 1750 to 1875. The lore for the hawk nest is an especially interesting bit of an addition to that history.

Historic Birdlife of the Greater Nebraska Sandhills

© 2007 James Ed. Ducey. No portion of this article may be replicated without explicit permission of its author. All rights reserved.

An intriguing adventure for an enthusiast interested in birdian history is determining the historic distribution of various species in a particular landscape. This endeavor is especially challenging for a sparsely settled region during a period of time prior to any devoted interest in ornithological record keeping.

Such is the case with the greater Nebraska sand hills, which extend a few miles into the southern Dakota territory, which is now South Dakota. This region of grass stabilized dunes - the largest in the northern hemisphere - has scattered lakes and vibrant streams and rivers that were habitat for a plethora of species. The simple variety of habitats has always been a haven for many types of birds.

Few explorers traversed the dunes, located away from primary transportation corridors such as the Missouri River and Platte River. Few of these travelers noted the bird life. As settlement arrived, with the first homestead era for the primary interior region of the sand hills dating about 1880, there are a few sources that provide scattered glimpses of what was once present.

With settlement of homesteaders on their measly quarter section, along came others to the grassland dunes. Fowl were an attractant to sportsmen excited to shoot at abundant game birds. In the later part of the period prior to 1900, an occasional naturalist visited and was able to denote what was present and denote their findings in the publications of the Nebraska Ornithologists' Union which was among the first bird groups organized in the nation.

Buttes de Sable. Sketch from the mid-1850s Warren Expedition.

Narrative Sources

The first source of pertinent records are a few notes in the records from the Warren journeys of the mid-1850s, ordered by the government to explore potential routes for trade westward from the Missouri River. Gouvernour Kemble Warren was the expedition leader. Ferdinand V. Hayden was the naturalist that made observations.

"Birds of the Untamed West" mentions the explorations: In the expedition report, Warren described the western prairies of Nebraska as an "irreclaimable desert, with only a little wood and cultivable land" (Warren 1875, 28). A section about the lakes in the Sand Hills mentions "water . . . impregnated with salts and unfit to drink" (Warren 1875, 26). Other lakes elsewhere did have water suitable for life, however (Warren 1875, 26). The Loup Fork, in the eastern hills, is described as being similar to the lower reaches of the Elkhorn River. The source of the Loup Fork was said to be similar to the western Niobrara River. The Snake River, in the northern Sand Hills, flows through a rugged and narrow pine-covered valley. The Dismal River was called the "Sand Hill Fork."

Hayden also wrote in his subsequent reports about the region: "composed of loose sand which has been thrown up into hills and ridges fifty to two hundred feet in height. . . . Though totally unfit for agricultural purposes, this tract of country cannot be said to be destitute of vegetation. In the valleys and depressions among the hills are many fine spots of grass, and sometimes the hills are covered with varieties of grass adapted to so meager a soil. . . . On the head of the Loup Fork, and between that stream and the Niobrara at various localities, are numerous saline and fresh-water lakes. The fresh-water lakes contain a great profusion of various species of water-plants and their peculiar animal life. . . . (Hayden 1863b, 367)."

The so few records at least mention wetland species such as nesting Sandhill Cranes and wetland species such as the American Bittern, Eared Grebe, and Marsh Wren. The Lark Sparrow is also noted.

From an 1960s report, there were interesting notations. Species were sighted along the Snake River, which in its lower reaches has wooded habitat more typical of the Niobrara valley. This is reflected in mentions of the Lewis' Woodpecker, Mountain Bluebird and Western Tanager. These three species occur in the pine habitat along the lower Snake and Niobrara. The Eared Grebe and American Pipit also were observed in the region along the Snake River.

In the mid-1870s, many records are available from several of the historic chronicles.

For his first report from the dune land, George Bird Grinnell - using pseudonyms Yo and Ornis - narratives mention several species for the lower Middle Loup River in 1873. Recorded were the Sharp-tailed Grouse, Upland Sandpiper, and two notable game birds: the Wild Turkey and Northern Bobwhite.

The same year, Siouxian Indians from the Yankton reservation on the Missouri River, traveled to hunt in the northeast hills. Notes mention the Sandhill Crane and Greater Prairie-Chicken. These species were noted for an area which - in the modern era - have lakes called Otter, Snipe and Wolf that recall what was present in those historic times.

In 1875, the predominant source of information on birds provided the first reports of those fowl of interest to shootists. The species: Sharp-tailed Grouse and Greater Prairie Chicken. Also prevalent were ducks and goose in the vicinity of New Helena and the lower Middle Loup River.

Cattle men entered the region during these times. The grass was luxuriant and ready for cropping by hordes of longhorn cattle. There were no resident people and entrepreneurial men moved northward from the Platte valley to take advantage of the abundant and nutritious resource.

Cattleman James Cook, in his memoirs, was impressed enough by the Trumpeter Swan and American White Pelican to mention them after they were seen on a cattle drive.

Land survey map of Clear, Dewey and Willow lakes in 1876. This area is currently at Valentine NWR.

This early era was when official government survey men were measuring and using various markers to indicate the township, range and section lines to indicate the new government domain, which had been Indian territory. One of the lakes measured in pre-Cherry County was called Pelican Lake, at what is now Valentine NWR. The government maps show the first historic depictions of the lakes, marshes and swamps that were havens to the wild fowl.

George Grinnell returned to the southern sandhills in 1877, an area readily reached via wagon travel from the railroad station at North Platte. At the famous Cody/North ranch near the headwaters of the aptly named Dismal River he wrote: "On . . . [the river's] surface can be seen at any hour of the day thousands of ducks and geese, and tens of thousands of waders. The most abundant ducks which we see are the smaller broadbills and the blue-winged teal, though mallards, black ducks and gadwalls are numerous. Flocks of geese alight on the lake every day, and to my surprise I learned that two pairs of swans (Cygnus Americanus) bred on its shores during the past summer (Grinnell 1877, 152).

Cattleman Luther North also described the presence of the swans, and raising of Trumpeter Swan cygnets. Buffalo Bill Cody was the partner in the ranch, which spread for mile after mile after mile north to south and east to west along the riverine hills.

The place was certainly an attraction to Grinnell. He returned the following year. Bird specimens he collected from this region in September 1878 included specimens of the Rusty Blackbird, Common Grackle and McCown's Longspur that were collected in the Dismal River area. These carcasses are included in the collection of the Birdcraft Museum operated by the Connecticut Audubon Society in Fairfield, Connecticut.

After a few years, a professor visited the eastern hills. Lawrence Bruner snagged a few acres and the lake at the place is known as Bruner Lake. At nearby Swan Lake - named for an obvious feature - is one of the first tree plantings for the region. An effort which certainly changed the variety of bird species present at the locale.

Hearty settlers had a variety of interests and by the mid-1880s, there were newspaper to report the details. For 1885, there was a newspaper item in the O'Neill Frontier - borrowed from the Stuart Ledger - written by Ham Kautzman that mentions what was the new hamlet in Holt county. It reads:

"Like a Silver Ribbon - A Poetical Pen Picture of the Classic Elkhorn River

"Over the fertile prairies, among the hills and the glens, along grassy and wild-flowered banks, the Elkhorn wends its way like a sliver ribbon. The wind stoops in its flight across the undulating valley, leaving a mantle of dimpled ruffles on the river's surface and scattering a leafy benediction down from the occasional group of trees that stand upon the banks of this tinsel strand. The prairies stretch for miles and miles on either side, and across their wide expanse through the year come floating down a thousand echoes and the fragrance of countless numbers of prairie flowers. At times from a distant height a fleet-footed deer or antelope may be seen, or the yelp of a coyote heard to mingle with the snap of the cow-boy's whip as his herd sweeps down to the river to drink of its clear and nourishing waters. In the summer when twilight gathers over the hills, a ruffled roll is heard from every side. The prairie chickens, with heads erect and plumes outstretched, strut in lordly manner upon their native heath, and with rustling wings and proudly swelling throats fill the air with re-echoed boomings. In the spring, sand-hill cranes, whose forms float far upward toward the heavens, circle slowly over the river, their occasional cries sounding faint and far off as if from a spirit world. In the fall jack-rabbits scamper through the dead grasses and by their speed put to shame the fleetest of dogs. On the dead limb of a tree the yellow-hammer sits in grave contemplation, and above him the wood-pecker beats a steady tattoo that enlivens the heart of the horny-handed agriculturalist. The river glides smoothly along, and hardly a ripple is heard from its placid current. So still and regular it flows that it seems as if a spell had been laid on its waters. Although the echoes and voices whisper morning and evening to is listless spirit, the river moves noiselessly along with hardly a murmur in response. It is the type of all that is grace and beauty, the queen of rivers. Repose is written in the air above and around it, and peace and rest forever linger at its side. The roll of vaulted thunder falls as lightly on its breast as the whistle of the golden plover. Turtle doves coo to their mates in the branches of trees, and in the shady bends the wood duck bathes his brilliant plumage, while the graceful pickerel in countless numbers can be seen darting through its crystal waters. Under the summer sky, when dainty wild roses blush and emit their sweetness in the glance of molten sun, or under the winter darkness, when its icy barriers are dotted with rabbit tracks, the river softly flows - clear, calm and patient - so steadfast and true, and leaning lightly upon the protecting arm of the great prairie and woodland, Elkhorn gathers the sweep of shimmering waters in a liquid train and gently glides away to the Platte, and the poet might well sing of

"The wild gazette with silver feet,

"Give to me for a play mate sweet."

What an special narrative with little details of bird information!

Shooting Sportsmen

Sketch of sporting editor Sandy Griswold.

It was a new era for Nebraska when Samuel Girard Veals Griswold got a fresh challenge in 1886. He did not like the reporting by the Omaha Bee newspaper that he read while on waiting for the train to continue his trip westward from Ohio. On a challenge, he wrote the "first real baseball story ever printed in Omaha" and became sporting editor for the Omaha "rag." Thank poor reporting for legacy of Sandy Griswold. His recorded efforts will never be surpassed in Nebraska, or elsewhere.

This editor's interest included outdoor sports among many other related activities. In 1888, he came to hunt water fowl in the northern Sandhills, north of the railroad town of Cody. His lake of particular interest was dubbed Three Spring Lake. The water body became the home of the Merganzer Hunt Club, a place known to historians. The lake is now improperly called Cody Lake.

The shooting must have been suberb as his Sunday newspaper columns are grand scribblings of the sandhills scene. His interest continued with subsequent travels elsewhere during the fowl migrations. Included in the list of places are the Lacreek marshes (now Lacreek NWR), at a hunting camp in the Crescent Lake region (now Crescent Lake NWR) with the celebrated Miles Maryott, and many visits to the lakes north of Cody. Griswold and his fellow sportsmen - once some lakeside property was owned by the Metz family, beer brewers of Omaha - established the Merganzer Hunt Club. The men continued many spring and autumn pursuits of members of the finned and feathered animals.

There are asundry other sources based on shooting sports that have provided a few details of birds that help illustrate the species present prior to 1900.

In 1895, Isador Trostler visited Three Springs Lake and wrote about his observations in Nidiologist, a historic bird journal published on the national scene.

A few scattered sources provide a few more details for the distinct sand hills region. This alternative source of birdlife records continues after 1900.

Place Names

The place names given for the bird species records are based on modern name equivalents, with modifiers used to designate locales where there may be multiple instances of that name (i.e., Alkali Lake, Swan Lake). Although modifiers may not be required during this time interlude, the localities conform to the site names designated for many thousands of bird records for the region after 1900.

Localities mentioned with the bird records; providing Site Name; County; State

• Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle; Cherry; NE • Amelia; Holt; NE • Anselmo; Custer; NE • Ballards Marsh WMA; Cherry; NE • Bassett; Rock; NE • Blue Lake; Garden; NE • Bruner Lake; Holt; NE • Cameron Lake; Rock; NE • Campbell Lake, Mumper Quadrangle; Garden; NE • Chambers; Holt; NE • Cherry County; Cherry; NE • Cody-North Ranch; McPherson/Hooker; NE • Crescent Lake; Garden; NE • Dewey Lake, Valentine NWR; Cherry; NE • Dismal River; Blaine; NE • Dismal River Headwaters; Grant; NE • Dismal River; Hooker; NE • Goose Lake; Garden; NE • Grant County; Grant; NE • Green Valley; Holt; NE • Hackberry Lake; Garden; NE • Hackberry Lake, Valentine NWR; Cherry; NE • Headwaters of the Dismal River; Hooker; NE

• Kennedy; Cherry; NE • Lake Creek Marshes; Bennett; SD; includes the "Haunted Hole" and "Otter Point" • Long Pine; Brown; NE • Long Pine Creek; Brown; NE • Merriman; Cherry; NE • Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills; Custer, Blaine; NE • Mother Lake; Cherry; NE • New Helena; Custer; NE • Pelican Lake, Valentine NWR; Cherry; NE • Raccoon Lake; Cherry; NE/SD • Sand Hills; various counties; NE • Snake River; Cherry; NE • Stuart; Holt; NE • Swan Lake; Holt; NE • Three Springs Lake (a.k.a. Cody Lake); Cherry; NE • Valentine Lake District; Cherry; NE • Watts Lake, Valentine NWR; Cherry; NE • Wolf Lake, Pony Lake Quadrangle; Rock; NE • Wood Lake Postoffice; Cherry; NE

List of Known Bird Species

After a couple of decades considering and investigating birds of the sand hills, the following records that have been gathered, do document known species and present a bit of further understanding for bird species of the indomitable prairie, a virtual sea of grass. These records are from a database of bird records from the region.

Greater White-fronted Goose

Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov, 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Raccoon Lake: speckled brant 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901).

Snow Goose

Lake Creek Marshes: white geese in late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Goose Lake: flock on 17 Mar 1894 (Griswold 15 Apr 1894). Crescent Lake: 17 Mar 1895 at Hamilton's place and "mob" on 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896; brant [distinct from speckled brant] (Griswold 24 Feb 1901).

Canada Goose

Headwaters of the Dismal River: numerous 6 Sep 1877 (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Three Springs Lake: 25 Oct 1887 (Griswold 8 Aug 1909). Three Springs Lake: thousands in 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: flock in the sky heard while on duck hunt during late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Raccoon Lake: flocks 9 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Raccoon Lake: 10-12 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Goose Lake: two 17 Mar 1894 (Griswold 15 Apr 1894). Crescent Lake: 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle: gray and white forms of the "Canadas" (Searle 1896). Raccoon Lake: long solemn lines 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: 26 Oct 1898, also 28 Oct at Cedar Lake, and huge flocks 30 Oct at Haunted Hole (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Trumpeter Swan

Grant County: swans 22-24 Jun 1873 in northwest Grant and southwest Cherry County (Lindsay 1929). Cherry County: swans on 22-24 June 1873 in northwest Grant and southwest Cherry County (Lindsay 1929). Cherry County: swans in summer of 1876 at a lake, western Cherry county area (Cook 1927). Cody-North Ranch: adults and young raised in the summer at the Cody-North Ranch area in headwaters area of the Dismal River; 6 Sep 1877 (North 1961). Crescent Lake: "lovely swan," 17 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Watts Lake, Valentine NWR: used to breed at Watt's Lake when ranches new and few, ca. 1899 (Bates 1899).

Wood Duck

Stuart: wood duck bathes its brilliant plumage, Apr 1885 (Editor 1885).

Gadwall

Headwaters of the Dismal River: many 6 Sep 1877 in headwaters area of the Dismal River, Grant/Hooker (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Valentine Lake District: breed in the lake district (Shoshone 1890). Kennedy: 7 Nov 1891 (Graves 1901).

American Wigeon

Three Springs Lake: 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Three Springs Lake: 4 Nov 1891 on autumn duck shoot (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: small bunch on 10 Oct 1893, and 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Hackberry Lake: two 17 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle: 1896 (Searle 1896). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: sweeping curves 26 Oct 1898 at Cedar Lake (Griswold 13 Nov 1898). Lake Creek Marshes: score 28 Oct 1898 at Haunted Hole, also 30 Oct 1898, and 1 Nov 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

American Black Duck

Headwaters of the Dismal River: many 6 Sep 1877 in headwaters area of the Dismal River, Grant/Hooker (Grinnell [Yo] 1877).

Mallard

Headwaters of the Dismal River: many 6 Sep 1877 in headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Bruner Lake: eggs collected in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: 25 Oct 1887 (Griswold 8 Aug 1909). Three Springs Lake: thousands also along Hay Creek in 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: 50, 1 shot, flock, et al. in late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Valentine Lake District: breed in the lake district, 1890 (Shoshone 1890). Three Springs Lake: numbers 4 Nov 1891 during autumn duck shoot (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: 09-11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Goose Lake: two 17 Mar 1894 (Griswold 15 Apr 1894). Lake Creek Marshes: 3 shot, 35 taken in the day, 11 Sep 1894 (Lowrey 1894). Goose Lake: flock 17 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Crescent Lake: one 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Three Springs Lake: numerous broods, 21 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle: flocks and large numbers seen, ca. 1896 (Searle 1896). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: long lines 26 Oct 1898 at Cedar Lake; 13 27 Oct at Otter Point; brace, band on 28 Oct at Haunted Hole; bunch 30 Oct at Haunted Hole; and 1 Nov 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Blue-winged Teal

Headwaters of the Dismal River: numerous 6 Sep 1877 in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Lake Creek Marshes: teal on the duck shoot, late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Valentine Lake District: breed in the lake district, ca. 1890 (Shoshone 1890). Three Springs Lake: teal on autumn duck shoot, 4 Nov 1891 (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: teal 10 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Lake Creek Marshes: "myriads of teal: 11 Sep 1894 (Lowrey 1894). Crescent Lake: teal 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Three Springs Lake: three nests with eggs, 21 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle: two, ca. 1896 (Searle 1896). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: 28 Oct 1898 at Haunted Hole, and "big flock" 1 Nov (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Northern Shoveler

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Bassett: 23 Apr 1892 (Graves 1901). Three Springs Lake: numerous broods 21 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Cameron Lake: 23 Mar 1896 (Carlin 1896).

Northern Pintail

Three Springs Lake: in 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Crescent Lake: pair 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901).

Green-winged Teal

Raccoon Lake: bunch 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: wisps 26 Oct 1898 at Cedar Lake (Griswold 13 Nov 1898). Cherry County: winters in the county, ca. 1899 (Bates 1899).

Canvasback

Three Springs Lake: 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Three Springs Lake: several on autumn duck shoot, 4 Nov 1891 (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Goose Lake: 20, 36, bunch, 60, flock, 100 on 17 March 1894 (Griswold 15 Apr 1894). Crescent Lake: bunch 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Three Springs Lake: nests with eight and seven eggs 28 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle: two in 1896 (Searle 1896). Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle: bred at Irwin in 1896-97 (Bates 1899). Cameron Lake: 23 Mar 1896 (Carlin 1896). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Hackberry Lake, Valentine NWR: 1897 (Bates 1899). Lake Creek Marshes: seven 29 Oct 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Sandy Griswold had a bunch of bravado about the taking of several hundred canvasback taken during one his Garden county hunting trips. His shooting success was recalled in several columns in the paper. Griswold eventually wrote for the Omaha World-Herald. Some of his reports were slightly revised and reissued in Forest and Stream, a national publication for sportsmen.

Redhead

Three Springs Lake: 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Three Springs Lake: during autumn duck shoot, 4 Nov 1891 (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: 10 Oct 1893, and bunches 11 Oct (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Lake Creek Marshes: 11 Sep 1894 (Lowrey 1894). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: 26 Oct 1898 at Cedar Lake, 100 on 28 Oct and 24 with ten shot on 30 Oct at the Haunted Hole, and also on 1 Nov (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Ring-necked Duck

Lake Creek Marshes: "black-jack" {probably ring-necked duck, as compared to bluebills also mentioned, which are Lesser Scaup) on 26 Oct 1898 at Cedar Lake (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Lesser Scaup

Headwaters of the Dismal River: abundant 6 Sep 1877 in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Three Springs Lake: bluebills 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: "blue bills of the duck shoot," late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Three Springs Lake: bluebill of autumn duck shoot 4 Nov 1891 (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: bluebill 10 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Raccoon Lake: scaup 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: "dense masses" 26 Oct 1898 at Cedar Lake, also "dense masses"; bluebill 28 Oct; and bunch 30 Oct 1898 at Haunted Hole (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Bufflehead

Lake Creek Marshes: "butterball of the duck shoot," in late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Kennedy: 7 Nov 1891 (Graves 1901). Raccoon Lake: "butterball" 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: "butterball" 1 Nov 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Common Goldeneye

Three Springs Lake: 1888 (Griswold March 1904).

Hooded Merganser

Swan Lake: 10 Sep 1891 (Graves 1901).

Common Merganser

Lake Creek Marshes: merganzer late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Three Springs Lake: 4 Nov 1891 during autumn duck shoot (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Crescent Lake: 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895).

Ruddy Duck

Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Bassett: 23 Apr 1892 (Graves 1901). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: ruddies 26 Oct 1898 at Cedar Lake (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Greater Sage-Grouse

Sand Hills: taken in sandhills of western NE about 1896 (Nebraska Ornithologists' Union 1895-1915).

Sharp-tailed Grouse

Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: present around 1873 on the lower Middle Loup River section of the sandhills (Grinnell [Ornis] 1873). Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: mid-October to mid-November 1875; Middle Loup river west and north of New Helena (H. B. A. 1891). New Helena: covies Oct and Nov 1875 (Initials 1876). New Helena: covies Nov 1875 (H. B. A. 1891). Dismal River: covies in hills at lower stretch (Initials 1876). New Helena: 1876 (Initials 1876). Bruner Lake: fairly common, eggs collected in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Kennedy: 25 Apr 1892 (Graves 1901). Anselmo: May 1893 (Hubbard 1893a). Raccoon Lake: five 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Lake Creek Marshes: 11 Sep 1894; this year are quite scarce (Lowrey 1894).

Greater Prairie-Chicken

Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: present around 1873 on the lower Middle Loup River section of the sandhills (Grinnell [Ornis] 1873). Wolf Lake, Pony Lake Quadrangle: into northeast sandhills from agency of Yankton Sioux in July 1873; "Into the stew-pots went venison, beans, a rabbit, and prairie hen." (Leeds 1873). Dismal River Headwaters: in 1874 (Bratt 1921). Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: mid-October to mid-November 1875 on Middle Loup river west and north of New Helena (H. B. A. 1891). New Helena: Nov 1875 (H. B. A. 1891). New Helena: one of the types of game birds in Oct and Nov 1875 (Initials 1876). New Helena: in 1876 (Initials 1876). Bruner Lake: numerous, eggs collected in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Stuart: prairie chickens strut and boom in Apr 1885 (Editor 1885). Bassett: 9 Sep 1891 (Graves 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: 11 Sep 1894; this year are quite scarce (Lowrey 1894).

Wild Turkey

Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: present occasionally around 1873 on the lower Middle Loup River section of the sandhills (Grinnell [Ornis] 1873). Long Pine Creek: 19 Dec 1878; reach extraordinary size of 25 pounds (X.Y.Z. 1878).

Northern Bobwhite

Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: present around 1873 on the lower Middle Loup River section of the sandhills (Grinnell [Ornis] 1873).

Common Loon

Three Springs Lake: one 4 Nov 1891; seen on autumn duck shoot (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: "weird bravura" of loon 9 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893).

Pied-billed Grebe

Lake Creek Marshes: hell-diver 1 Nov 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Horned Grebe

Valentine Lake District: breeds commonly at lakes; also @1888-1902 breeds in Cherry County (Nebraska Bird Review 1:143).

Eared Grebe

Snake River: 17 Sep 1856 , collected by Dr. Hayden (Baird et al. 1858).

Western Grebe

Mother Lake: 10 Nov 1898 (Nebraska Bird Review 1:147; ZM 14659).

Land survey map of Pelican, Dads and Whitewater lakes in 1875. This area is currently part of Valentine NWR.

American White Pelican

Cherry County: in the summer of 1876 at a lake in western Cherry county area (Cook 1927). Pelican Lake, Valentine NWR: 1 Jul 1885; when lake named, pelicans not an unusual sight (Correspondent 1927). Cherry County: 15 south of Wood Lake on 5 Jun 1897 (Bates 1899).

American Bittern

Sand Hills: one male 11 Aug 1857 at Sand Hills of Platte; collected by Dr. Hayden (Baird et al. 1858). Bruner Lake: probable nester, 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Bassett: 8 Sep 1891 (Graves 1901). Three Springs Lake: nest with four eggs in the lake area, 23 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Lake Creek Marshes: 30 Oct 1898 at Haunted Hole, and one on 1 Nov (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Great Blue Heron

Three Springs Lake: big blue crane in 1888 (Griswold March 1904).

Black-crowned Night-Heron

Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901).

Osprey

Three Springs Lake: one seen on autumn duck shoot, 4 Nov 1891 (Griswold 17 Jan 1892). Raccoon Lake: wild scream of fish hawk 9 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893).

Bald Eagle

Raccoon Lake: 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Lake Creek Marshes: 30 Oct 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Northern Harrier

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Northern Goshawk

Kennedy: October 1896 (Bates 1899).

Swainson's Hawk

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 in the area (Bruner 1902b). Cherry County: common and undoubtedly breeds (Bates 1899).

Red-tailed Hawk

Raccoon Lake: five "Mr. Red Tail" on 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Lake Creek Marshes: 28 Oct 1898 over Wolf Slough, also 30 Oct (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Rough-legged Hawk

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Cherry County: present in the county area in 1896 (Bates 1899).

Golden Eagle

Lake Creek Marshes: one shot and captured 1 Nov 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Merlin

Lake Creek Marshes: pigeon hawk shot in later October 1891; stuffed for Griswold (Griswold 30 Aug 1908).

King Rail

Ballards Marsh WMA: in September 1896 (Bates 1899).

American Coot

Bruner Lake: eggs collected in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: 25 Oct 1887 (Griswold 8 Aug 1909). Raccoon Lake: mud hen 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Three Springs Lake: nesting at the lake, 28 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Lake Creek Marshes: 28 Oct 1898 at Haunted Hole (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Sandhill Crane

Sand Hills: "not rare, especially in the Sand Hills of Nebraska" ca. 1857 (Hayden 1863). Wolf Lake, Pony Lake Quadrangle: on 1 Aug 1873 "shot at two cranes perched on a hill, secured one" (Leeds 1873). Cody-North Ranch: young in the summer of 1879 at the Cody-North Ranch in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (North 1961). Bruner Lake: young in 1883-84, and "summer breeding resident" (Bruner 1902b). Stuart: sand hill cranes in the spring, Apr 1885 (Editor 1885). Three Springs Lake: flocks in 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: "cranes heard in the sky," late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: flocks in later October 1891 (Griswold 30 Aug 1908). Green Valley: Mar 1894 (Hunters 1894). Lake Creek Marshes: three adults and young in nest at a sandhill lake, likely this locale on 24 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: one shot 27 Oct 1898; "long string" 28 Oct at Haunted Hole; flocks 29 Oct; 1 Nov (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Whooping Crane

These two records - based on the one given date of occurrence - are hypothetical. Griswold was a "prose poet" and would mention particular species for dramatic presentation.

Three Springs Lake: small bunches in 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Campbell Lake, Mumper Quadrangle: 3 Mar 1895; in the lake vicinity (Griswold 7 Apr 1895).

Killdeer

Headwaters of the Dismal River: 6 Sep 1877 in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Three Springs Lake: 21 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895).

American Avocet

Headwaters of the Dismal River: "large flock" 6 Sep 1877 in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Three Springs Lake: "snowy avocets" in 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Raccoon Lake: pair of "snowy avocet" shot 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Blue Lake: "in the upper shallows ... saw them by the thousands and tens of thousands; in one hour's shoot killed something like seventy birds," in 1894 (Griswold 1895c). Blue Lake: 1895 (Griswold 1895c). Dewey Lake, Valentine NWR: breeds 1896 (Rapp 1954).

Lesser Yellowlegs

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: 25 Oct 1887 (Griswold 8 Aug 1909). Three Springs Lake: yellowlegs 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Lake Creek Marshes: late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Raccoon Lake: 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Raccoon Lake: yellowlegs 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: yellowlegs 27 Oct 1898 at Otter Point; 28 Oct at Haunted Hole; dozens 30 Oct at Haunted Hole; 1 Nov (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Willet

Bruner Lake: 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Watts Lake, Valentine NWR: 30 May 1893 (Graves 1901).

Upland Sandpiper

Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: present around 1873 on the lower Middle Loup River section of the sandhills (Grinnell [Ornis] 1873). Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: 21 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895).

Long-billed Curlew

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: sickle-billed curlew in 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Kennedy: 28 Apr 1892 (Graves 1901). Raccoon Lake: 11 Oct 1893; curlew (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Three Springs Lake: four just-hatched young, 22 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895).

Least Sandpiper

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Baird's Sandpiper

Headwaters of the Dismal River: several 6 Sep 1877 in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Stilt Sandpiper

Cherry County: shot in 1896 (Bates 1899).

Wilson's Snipe

Headwaters of the Dismal River: seen occasionally 6 Sep 1877 in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Chambers: "jack snipes are screeching and the way the game bags and guns were gathering up wasn't slow"; 6 May 1886 (Chambers Chestnuts correspondents column; Yum Yum 1886). Three Springs Lake: 1888 (Griswold March 1904). Amelia: "snipe hunting was brisk on Sunday last," 11 Aug 1889 (Nix 1889). Lake Creek Marshes: "jacksnipe seen on two outings," late Oct or Nov 1890 (Griswold 8 Dec 1901). Kennedy: 25 Apr 1892 (Graves 1901). Raccoon Lake: four, 15-20, 24, "flurry" and "skeap of the jack-snipe" on 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Alkali Lake, Irwin Quadrangle: 1896 (Searle 1896). Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896 (Griswold 24 Feb 1901). Lake Creek Marshes: several 30 Oct 1898 at Haunted Hole (Griswold 13 Nov 1898). Merriman: 18 May 1899 (Bates 1899).

Wilson's Phalarope

Headwaters of the Dismal River: hundreds 6 Sep 1877 in the headwaters area of the Dismal River (Grinnell [Yo] 1877). Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: from 24-28 Jun 1895, young (Trostler 1895). Lake Creek Marshes: "little bevies" 28 Oct 1898, and big flocks 30 Oct, both at Haunted Hole (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Forster's Tern

Bruner Lake: eggs collected in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Black Tern

Bruner Lake: eggs collected in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Mourning Dove

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Stuart: turtle doves coo to their mates; Apr 1885 (Editor 1885). Three Springs Lake: 21 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895).

Snowy Owl

Wood Lake Postoffice: one 30 Nov 1898, carcass sent to the University (Nebraska Ornithologists' Union 1895-1915).

Burrowing Owl

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Great Gray Owl

Long Pine: stuffed specimen in a railroad town saloon in 1896 (Bruner 1896).

Short-eared Owl

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Kennedy: 1 Feb 1893 (Graves 1901).

Common Nighthawk

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Swan Lake: set of two eggs collected 23 Jun 1893 (University of Nebraska State Museum ZM 8498). Three Springs Lake: nest with two young 22 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895).

Belted Kingfisher

Raccoon Lake: one 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893).

Lewis's Woodpecker

Snake River: 17 Jun 1860 at the Snake River, Cherry county (Coues 1874). Long Pine: bird secured 19 Apr 1899 (Nebraska Ornithologists' Union 1895-1915).

Downy Woodpecker

Stuart: woodpecker "beats a steady tattoo" in Apr 1885 (Editor 1885).

Northern Flicker

Stuart: yellow hammer in the tree Apr 1885 (Editor 1885).

Loggerhead Shrike

Kennedy: 29 Apr 1892 (Graves 1901).

Pinyon Jay

Long Pine: a few pinion jay 9 Aug 1897 (Bates 1899). Long Pine: 2 Oct 1897 (Bates 1899).

American Crow

Raccoon Lake: 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893).

Horned Lark

Bruner Lake: present 1883-84 in the area (Bruner 1902b).

Barn Swallow

Dismal River: two birds at a nest in July 1870 along the western Dismal River, Hooker (Mitchell 1987).

Marsh Wren

Sand Hills: 12 Aug 1857; 1 female collected by Dr. Hayden (Baird et al. 1858). Bruner Lake: common and nesting in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Lake Creek Marshes: 27 Oct 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Mountain Bluebird

Snake River: Snake River in 1860 (Coues 1874).

Townsend's Solitaire

Long Pine: one 15 Jan 1898; specimen sent to W.D. Hunter (Nebraska Ornithologists' Union 1895-1915). Long Pine: 24 Jan 1898; very numerous (Nebraska Ornithologists' Union 1895-1915).

American Pipit

Snake River: in the 1860s [1860] or 1870s at the Snake River, Cherry (Coues 1874).

Western Tanager

Snake River: 18 Jun 1860 at the Snake River, Cherry {Hayden} (Coues 1874).

American Tree Sparrow

Kennedy: 1 Mar 1893 (Graves 1901).

Lark Sparrow

Sand Hills: one 12 August, Sand Hills [?Cherry County] and 1 female in 1857; collected by Dr. Hayden (Baird et al. 1858). Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 at lake and area (Bruner 1902b).

Lark Bunting

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Grasshopper Sparrow

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: 21 Jun 1895 in the lake area (Trostler 1895).

Lincoln's Sparrow

Swan Lake: 11 Sep 1891 (Graves 1901).

McCown's Longspur

Dismal River: four specimens collected 18 Sep 1878 by G.B. Grinnell at the Dismal River, Hooker/Grant (Birdcraft Museum catalog Number B555 to B558).

Blue Grosbeak

Long Pine: 13 Jun 1899; secured a nesting bird (Nebraska Ornithologists' Union 1895-1915).

Dickcissel

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: 21 Jun 1895 in the lake area (Trostler 1895).

Bobolink

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: 21 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895).

Red-winged Blackbird

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Raccoon Lake: blackbirds 9 and 11 Oct 1893 (Griswold 26 Nov 1893). Crescent Lake: blackbirds 18 Mar 1895 (Griswold 7 Apr 1895). Lake Creek Marshes: 30 Oct 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Western Meadowlark

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 in the area (Bruner 1902b). Three Springs Lake: nest with four eggs in the lake area 22 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895).

Yellow-headed Blackbird

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b). Swan Lake: 11 Sep 1891 (Graves 1901). Three Springs Lake: numerous and breeding 28 Jun 1895 (Trostler 1895). Lake Creek Marshes: 27 Oct 1898 (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Rusty Blackbird

Dismal River: two specimens collected 15 Sep 1878 G.B. Grinnell at the Dismal River (Birdcraft Museum Catalog Number B254 and B255).

Common Grackle

Dismal River: one specimen collected 15 Sep 1878 by G.B. Grinnell at the Dismal River (Birdcraft Museum Catalog Number B264).

Brown-headed Cowbird

Bruner Lake: present in 1883-84 (Bruner 1902b).

Cassin's Finch

Snake River: 1860 (Coues 1874).

Common Redpoll

Kennedy: about 1899 (Bates 1899).

Some additional records are available for the following generic bird types, as mentioned in the historic narratives:

Crane

Wolf Lake, Pony Lake Quadrangle; 2 in July 1873; Indians into northeast sandhills from agency of Yankton Sioux; "we rode into the hills for a shot at two cranes perched on an elevation at no great distance" (Leeds 1873).

Duck

Three Springs Lake: 30 Sep 1874 at South Run lake: ducks abundant during visit of northern boundary survey party (Ten Dog 1874).

New Helena: Nov 1875; ducks of various kinds were about (Initials 1876).

Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: mid-October to mid-November 1875; Middle Loup river west and north of New Helena; "all the water-fowl common to the West" (H. B. A. 1891).

Green Valley: Mar 1894; 2307 ducks of various strains and plumages (Hunters 1894).

Goose

Three Springs Lake: 30 Sep 1874 at South Run lake; geese abundant during visit of northern boundary survey party (Ten Dog 1874).

New Helena: flocks of wild geese on the river sandbars of the Middle Loup (Initials 1876).

Middle Loup River, eastern Sandhills: mid-October to mid-November 1875; Middle Loup river west and north of New Helena; "all the water-fowl common to the West" (H. B. A. 1891).

Green Valley: Mar 1894; 786 geese taken (Hunters 1894).

Gull

Lake Creek Marshes: 28 Oct 1898; white gull at Haunted Hole (Griswold 13 Nov 1898).

Owl

Lake Creek Marshes: 1 Nov 1898; large white old owl (Griswold 13 Nov 1898). This is a hypothetical record since Griswold was often effusive in his sporting columns and may have said a species was present whereas he just included it for reasons to make his columns more enticing and to set a dramatic scene for his readers.

Sandpiper

Headwaters of the Dismal River: 6 Sep 1877; several oxeyes (Grinnell [Yo] 1877).

Teal

Three Springs Lake: 1888 (Griswold March 1904).

Unidentified Birds

Raccoon Lake: 7 Mar 1896; swamp sparrow (Griswold 24 Feb 1901).

References

The citations are not presented in a standard fashion within the narrative since some authors (especially sporting editor Sandy Griswold) may have had several items published each month, or year. The reference's are not listed here for various particular reasons, although each is a very detailed record within the bird database that was the origin of this analysis.

The Nebraska Newspaper Project - underway now for many years - provided the copies of historic newspapers on microfilm that made the special little details essential for a thorough review of information, available for directed review. One result is that the complete text for many of the citations given are available online, especially at the Birds of Nebraska website provided by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.