Vivid History of Birds Provided by Arctic Voyages in the 1850s

During the Arctic winter of 160 years ago these days, a daily saga was underway among the icy lands of the great north. An expedition led by Sir John Franklin - those remaining anyway - were striving to survive the endless cold. Though their leader and others had already been left behind, the remaining men were searching for refuge and survival.

Constant was the cold and ice during survival for about 130 British Navy crews on an expedition to search for the fabled northwest passage.

There was a constant history of excursions, starting with Davis in 1585, then Hudson around 1610. The United Kingdom relied on overseas explorations and territorial claims. In 1825-1827 was Sir John Franklin's second arctic land expedition, with also the journal of Lieutenant George Peard. This was quickly followed by an 1829-1833 narrative by Sir John Ross during a residence ensconced at Felix Harbour. The ice-bound narrative by literary Captain George Back, on H.M.S. Terror, turning among the ice off Cape Comfort in 1836.

John Rae of the Hudson Bay Company went overland along north Hudson Bay in 1847, up to Committee Bay, on an exploration.

Sir Franklin knew the perils and constantly strove to contend with known problems of long-term survival in hostile conditions. The Royal Navy knew the supplies needed for an Arctic voyage where ice decided fate for visitors. The ships went up Lancaster Sound.

There was no further direct communication. At the home ports in northern Europe, nothing was heard from H.M.S. Erebus with H.M.S. Terror since both ships reached west Greenland in 1845.

Without any further communication with the Royal Navy, the concern turned to action to send out ships and men to search for the lost expedition.

Plans were set to conduct a search. The first among many got sail in 1848. Their orders were to search for remains of the two other H.M. ships.

The party went overland - led by Sir John Richardson - along the Arctic coast. Reports include the narrative of Captain Kellett. Scientific discovery was integral to the travelers. They talked about the people of the villages, even considering their language and providing a dictionary that comments on terms used for local birds.

Further effort was endeavoured by Lady Franklin - his wife Jane - as in April 1849, making a personal letter appeal to President Clayton, for United States government involved. She also made personal appeals to Sir John Ross of earlier Arctic voyages.

Lady Franklin's effort was foremost and urgent, and instrumental in continuing the search that brought a myriad of ships to the north polar seas.

The Board of Admirality was "induced to offer a reward of 20,00 l. sterling to any ship or ships, of any country, or to any exploring party whatever, which shall render efficient assistance to the missing ships, or their crews, or to any portion of them."

The variety of nautical craft sailed the way - several to beget being beset in a shifting panorama of bergs and floes of packed ice - continued with several government expeditions, as well as private excursions. A manner of efforts sallied forth from both sides of the north Atlantic.

• 1845-1851 narrative by Berthold Seemann of the voyage of H.M.S. Herald to Panama, lower California and the western Arctic
• 1850 narrative of William Parker Snow on the Arctic Branch Expedition
• 1850-1851 account by Captain Robert Maclure of the discovery of the north-west passage; includes narrative of H.M.S. Resolute, Capt. Kellett; mentions ducks, geese and swan as waterfowl present
• 1850-1851 journal by Elisha Kent Kane on the first Henry Grinnell Esq. funded expedition to the Arctic islands
• 1850-1851 journal by Lieutenant Sherard Osborn on H.M. steam-vessel Pioneer to Assistance Bay, under Captain Horatio T. Austin
• 1850-1851 journal of Peter C. Sutherland on a voyage with H.M. ships Lady Franklin and Sophia, in Baffin's Bay and Barrow Straits, under command of William Penny; includes reports by Alexander Stewart and Robert A. Goodsir

• 1850-1853 memoirs of Lieutenant Joseph Rene Bellot with H.M.S. Prince Albert about Batty Bay
• 1850-1854 diary of Johann Miertsching, Esquimaux interpreter, on H.M.S. Investigator, and other subsequent ships during an ordeal
• 1850-1854 narrative of Alexander Armstrong, surgeon and naturalist on H.M.S. Investigator to Baring's Island, Prince Albert Land and Victoria Strait
• 1851-1853 journal by Captain Richard Collinson with H.M.S. Enterprise at Beaufort Sea and Melville Sound
• 1852 summer by Commander E.A. Inglefield on the schooner Isabel to the eastern Polar basin; single mention of loon and sea-birds
• 1852-1854 journal of Rochfort Maguire at Point Plover on H.M.S. Plover; with T.E.L. Moore expedition to Point Barrow, 1850; Maguire boat expedition to Point Barrow in 1852; Charles Vernon toward Peard Bay, 1853; Dr. John Simpson Eskimo essay
• 1852-1854 narrative by Captain Sir Edward Belcher to the Arctic islands
• 1852-1854 with ship's master George F. McDougall on H.M.S. Resolute to Melville Island
• 1853-1854 overland of Dr. John Rae from Repulse Bay to Boothia; a source document for this expedition has not been located for review
• 1853-1855 journal by Elisha Kent Kane on the second Henry Grinnell funded voyage to the Arctic; beset at northwest Greenland
• 1854-1855 via boat with Isaac I. Hayes, M.D., party to Rensselaer Harbour and Booth Bay, northwest Greenland
• 1857-1859 narrative by Captain F.L. M'Clintock, on the yacht Fox, in Baffin Bay and Gulf of Boothia finding relics of the Franklin expedition

Lengthy narratives detail events for many days. Oftimes the scribe made an entry for each day. Sometimes the sheer survival meant several months were presented in a paragraph. An unknown number of working men that left Europe remained in the Arctic, their compass stilled, their bones sometimes gnawed by the gnarly wolves. Other relicts - including marker cairns with a message in the bottle - remained, and considered to a great extent by subsequent visitors.

Ordeal was the consistent theme. Frozen toes or fingers - noisy ice lolling about - Esquimaux escapades - burials - tempting seals - daily chills - etc. are among the common reminiscences by the men who scribed narratives under many conditions - balmy to horrific. There was especially a meteorological journal, to compare coldest temperatures, when it was 40o- or on a dubious day of distinction when 50o- and the thermometer mercury had already stopped.

Whether during a whirling compass for a few weeks - or months - sometimes during an overland travel of exploration to document efforts for the prime cause, local activity was denoted in the ship log, sometimes a personal diary to recollect daily events. The words are a treasure of bird-lore.

Arctic Birds

Birds were noted at a many newly designated place's shown, most carefully shown on the maps included with the expedition report. Geography was given on a deftly drawn and detail map useful for nautical purposes. Some maps might include a line to show the determined position on a particular date.

Because of the many voyages in search of the lost expedition, there is an especial history for Arctic birds during this period. Birds were commonly noted because of their value for a fresh pie on a cold wooden ship surrounded by dynamic ice. Overland forays during times of sterile navigation denoted other bird life. A great many little details about Arctic birds are within nearly each of these chronicles. Notations present the birds denoted during a dozen years among the northern lands.

The variety of species given among the narratives depends on the living status of the writer, and details vary from place to place. More than a hundred other locales are represented by the geography of locales in Nanavut and Northwest Territories provinces of Canada, as well as the western coast of Greenland, north from Cape Farewell.

Common Name	1848	1849	1850	1851	1852	1853	1854	1855	1857	1858	1859
Snow Goose	2	2	1	5	4	-	-	-	-	-	-
Brant	3	1	5	9	3	3	3	-	-	1	3
Goose	2	2	1	6	8	4	7	-	-	-	-
Trumpeter Swan	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Swan	-	1	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Tundra Swan	1	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
American Wigeon	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Duck	2	1	10	10	6	13	17	-	1	-	3
Teal	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Northern Shoveler	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Northern Pintail	-	1	1	1	2	-	-	-	-	-	-
Scaup	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Unidentified waterfowl	1	2	4	7	3	5	2	-	-	-	-
King Eider	1	1	1	5	2	5	3	-	-	-	1
Common Eider	1	2	10	9	6	-	4	-	1	1	-
Eider	1	-	6	5	2	3	6	2	-	1	-
Harlequin Duck	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Surf Scoter	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Long-tailed Duck	2	1	4	3	2	4	4	-	-	-	1
Willow Ptarmigan	-	-	1	3	6	-	1	-	-	1	4
Rock Ptarmigan	-	-	1	4	3	-	1	-	-	3	4
Ptarmigan	-	-	7	31	18	13	12	3	1	5	-
Red-throated Loon	1	-	1	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	1
Arctic Loon	-	-	-	-	2	-	-	-	-	-	-
Loon	-	2	9	4	2	-	1	-	-	-	-
Common Loon	1	1	1	1	3	-	1	-	-	-	1
Northern Fulmar	-	-	6	-	4	1	3	-	-	-	-
Fulmar	-	-	2	1	-	-	-	-	-	2	1
Shearwater	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Wilson’s Storm-Petrel	-	-	-	2	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
American White Pelican	2	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Osprey	1	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Bald Eagle	2	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Gyrfalcon	-	1	-	2	-	-	1	-	-	-	-
Peregrine Falcon	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	-
Falcon	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	3	-
Sandhill Crane	1	2	1	-	3	-	-	-	-	-	-
American Golden-Plover	-	-	-	1	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Plover	-	-	-	1	1	2	-	-	-	-	-
Ruddy Turnstone	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Sanderling	-	-	3	1	1	-	1	-	-	-	-
Sandpiper	-	1	2	2	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Purple Sandpiper	-	-	2	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Shorebird	-	-	-	-	1	1	2	-	-	-	-
Phalarope	-	1	-	1	2	-	-	-	-	-	-
Red Phalarope	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Gull	-	2	2	9	5	2	7	-	-	2	2
Bonaparte's Gull	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Mew Gull	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Herring Gull	1	-	1	1	1	-	-	-	-	-	1
Glaucous Gull	-	-	7	7	3	3	7	-	-	1	-
Sabine's Gull	1	-	-	4	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Black-legged Kittiwake	-	-	3	3	3	2	1	1	-	-	-
Ivory Gull	1	-	4	4	-	-	4	-	-	1	-
Caspian Tern	2	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Black Tern	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Tern	1	-	-	1	1	-	-	-	-	1	-
Arctic Tern	1	1	2	2	-	-	4	-	-	-	-
Jaeger	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Parasitic Jaeger	-	-	1	-	1	-	-	-	-	1	-
Dovekie	-	-	13	5	4	-	1	2	-	2	-
Murre	-	-	5	3	4	-	-	1	-	3	-
Thick-billed Murre	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	1	-
Black Guillemot	-	-	4	7	4	1	7	-	1	4	1
Guillemot	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Crested Auklet	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Atlantic Puffin	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Owl	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Snowy Owl	1	-	-	5	3	1	1	1	-	1	2
Belted Kingfisher	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Northern Flicker	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
American Crow	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Common Raven	-	1	5	9	4	2	5	1	2	2	-
Horned Lark	1	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Northern Rough-winged Swallow	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Bank Swallow	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Cliff Swallow	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
White-crowned Sparrow	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Dark-eyed Junco	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Lapland Longspur	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Snow Bunting	-	-	9	4	6	1	1	-	-	1	-
Rusty Blackbird	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Common Redpoll	-	-	1	-	2	-	-	-	-	-	-
Unidentified birds	-	-	2	-	1	3	5	-	-	-	1
Bird effigy	-	-	1	-	-	2	1	-	-	-	-
Bird-motif garment	-	-	-	-	-	-	7	-	-	-	-

More than sixty recognized species are represented in this list that compiles the distinct voyages in a cooperative manner to show how the bunch are such a distinctive era of bird history for North America.

Bird Bolas

Plover Point was the place where a ship of a similar name spent plenty of time. H.M.S. Plover arrived in September 1852, near Noo-Wook, at what foreign visitors called Point Barrow. The ship was beset at the point, while to the east where the Plover Islands. During a residence during two winters - well described by Captain Rochfort Maguire - there was even a child named in recognition of the boat men. The entry is for December 14, 1852: "... There was only one other man on board - whose wife has been lately confined. We had jested with him some time ago about calling the infant Plover, or as he called it Labba, and on enquiry today he declared that to be the babes name ..."

Spring migration brought an interesting description of bolas being used to down birds for easy capture.

Friday May 20th ... The Natives watch the direction the birds take and run to the nearest point they expect them to pass over, and crouch in the snow until they are passing over, when they dexterously throw their trap to entangle them - and seldom fail to bring one down - The instrument used is common all along the coast and both sides of Bherings straits, and consists of eight or ten pieces of ivory, slung by as many cords nearly a yard long, all of which are united in the hand, so that when thrown the balls spread out and turn over one or more birds in the flock, bringing them to the ground -"

During an afternoon trip to the village, Dr. Hull: "saw some boys practising with the balls used to bring down birds on the wing at two pieces of whale bone tied together in the form of a cross which then thrown forwards came back towards the thrower something in the way of the Australians Boomerang - "

As migration advanced, many of the adult natives were using a bola on May 28th, described in the narrative by Maguire:

"... the ducks were found to be coming past in such numbers, the natives would not leave, and our gentlemen amused themselves shooting, & produced something like 11 from each gun.
"Doctor S gives the following account of this day - I killed ten at the expense of some twenty four charges no great sportsmanlike proceeding, but as my station was behind the natives not to interfere with them many of the shots were more distant than rigid economy of Ammunition would justify. It was a novel sight to see 200 (counted 183) people all ranged in line with balls attached to string, throwing them up at the flocks of birds as they came on - and at each 3-4 to 15 might be seen dropping. Each flight as they received the unexpected assault would rise higher waver & fly along the line entire & there reform in line to proceed on their journey. The flocks became less numerous towards 5 P.M. and many of the Natives left their station on the beach to the West of the Village. I think that not less than 600 that is twelve to each hut were taken by the Natives. Placed as they were twenty guns from the Ship ought to have brought home an equal number in the course of the day which would make one gun to five men with the Native means."

Bird-motif Garments

Maguire also recognized the local fashionable men used pieces or parts of birds as adornment, obviously utilizing feathered portions of a carcass, with the first portion probably eaten as part of a stew, or heaved in a food cache for winter.

In June 1854, Captain Maguire noted this attribute for the locals at Nuvuk, a tribal community village at Point Barrow ...

• one or two had on white duck trowsers;
• woman's coat; for common use and among the poorer people, the inner one is made of bird skins;
• usual belt made of the smaller wing feathers of ducks, after the plumes are taken off; partly sewed and partly woven with plaited cords of sinew; some have checkered appearance produced by alternate rows of black and white feathers; and
• dressed bird skins are used in making coats.

As Isaac I. Hayes figured how to survive above the polar circle during his post-autumn ordeal in 1854, he wrote enough to mention bird-motif garments worn by leaders for the local clans of the residents at Greenland. The doctor's small bunch of guys was struggling along on the eastern shore of Baffin's Bay in September, then at Wanderer's House, Booth Bay for a time of tribulations and perceived threats.

"We were surprised about noon by the appearance of an Esquimau. He came up the beach, and was as much astonished as ourselves. We recognized him as one of those who were at the ship last winter. His name was Amalatok. After exchanging salutations, he seated himself upon a rock with a cool dignity quite characteristic of his people, and began to talk in a rapid and animated manner. He was dressed in a coat made of bird-skins, feathers turned inward; bear-skin pantaloons, hair outward; tanned seal-skin boots, and dog-skin stockings. He told us he lived on the eastern side of the island;"

During mid-October, there were unexpected arrivals at the shelter.

"They were a most un-human looking pair. Everything on and about them told of the battle they had had with the elements. From head to foot they were invested in a coat of ice and snow. Shapeless lumps of whiteness that they were, they reminded me of the snow-kings I used to make when a boy, which, but for their lack of motion, would have been to all appearance quite as human as our visitors. Their long, heavy, fox-skin coats, reaching nearly to the knees, and surmounted by a hood, covering, like a round lump, all of the head but the face, the bear-skin pantaloons and boots and mittens, were saturated with snow. Their long, black hair, which fell from beneath their hoods over their eyes and cheeks; their eyelashes; the few hairs which grew upon their chins; the rim of fur around their faces, were sparkling with white frost, - the frozen moisture of their breath. Each carried in his right hand a whip, and in his left a lump of frozen meat and blubber. The meat was thrown upon the floor; and, without waiting for an invitation, they stuck their whipstocks under the rafters' and pulling off their mittens and outer garments, hung them thereon. Underneath these frosty coats they wore a shirt of bird-skins.

Also notable for this narrative is the mention of frozen birds being used as food during the winter, months after being cached during the breeding season. Hayes especially mentioned little auks taken at Northumberland Island, seen when displayed as a frozen, foot square cube extracted to provide food during winter harshness.

Arctic Bird History

Many Arctic voyages that searched for the Franklin expedition have more than 800 bird-related records. Some places well known with this comprehensive natural history based on narrative history, include:

Point Plover - 57 records; Bay of God's Mercy - 45; Rensselaer Harbor - 37; Batty Bay - 36; Princess Royal Islands - 31; Fort Confidence - 20; Cape Hotham - 18; Assistance Harbour - 16; Berry Island - 16; Cape York - 16; Melville Bay - 16; Griffith's Island - 16; Bear Island Point - 15; and, Port Kennedy - 15.

Birds most commonly noted were the Ptarmigan, generic duck, eider and brent goose, croaking ravens, the Black Guillemot which was designated as a dovekie, burgomasters and other interesting gull such as the Ivory Gull, little auks better known as Dovekies, notable waterfowl of special value winging along, the regular snow bunting as a harbinger of seasonal change, and types of long-tailed duck. They did not forget to record a number of times, observations of the mollemauk, spelled in several manners depending on the author's linguist view.

Conclusion

Some notes found in a cairn indiciated the Franklin ships spent their first winter, 1845-1846 at Beechey Island, where three graves were located. The ships were abandoned in April 1848 - 24 men were already dead - the remainder moved southward through Peel Strait, then Franklin Strait, even down to the Back River, hoping to find survival at a fur trade post. All perished. Many relics were bought by a traveling party from the Fox, which also discovered two skeletons in a boat on King William Island. Sir John Franklin was credited - by official proclamation - with discovering the Northwest Passage. The fate of the expedition was sealed with the message given by the relicts located in 1859.